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<s> april is the fourth month of the year in the gregorian calendar and one of four months with a length of num days </s>
<s> april was originally the second month of the roman calendar before january and february were added by king numa pompilius about num bc </s>
<s> it became the fourth month of the calendar year the year when twelve months are displayed in order during the time of the decemvirs about num bc when it also was given num days </s>
<s> the derivation of the name latin aprilis is uncertain </s>
<s> the traditional etymology is from the latin aperire to open in allusion to its being the season when trees and flowers begin to open which is supported by comparison with the modern greek use of opening for spring </s>
<s> since some of the roman months were named in honor of divinities and as april was sacred to venus the festum veneris et fortunae virilis being held on the first day it has been suggested that aprilis was originally her month aphrilis from her greek name aphrodite aphros or from the etruscan name apru </s>
<s> jacob grimm suggests the name of a hypothetical god or hero aper or aprus </s>
<s> the anglo-saxons called april oster-monath or eostur-monath </s>
<s> the venerable bede says that this month is the root of the word easter </s>
<s> he further speculates that the month was named after a goddess eostre whose feast was in that month </s>
<s> st george day is the twenty-third of the month and st mark eve with its superstition that the ghosts of those who are doomed to die within the year will be seen to pass into the church falls on the twenty-fourth </s>
<s> in china the symbolic ploughing of the earth by the emperor and princes of the blood took place in their third month which frequently corresponds to our april </s>
<s> the finns called and still call this month huhtikuu or burnwood month when the wood for beat and burn clearing of farmland was felled </s>
<s> the days of april es is a name appropriated in french history to a series of insurrections at lyons paris and elsewhere against the government of louis philippe in num which led to violent repressive measures and to a famous trial known as the s </s>
<s> the birthstone of april is the diamond and the birth flower is typically listed as either the daisy or the sweet pea </s>
<s> april is commonly associated with the season of spring in the northern hemisphere and autumn in the southern hemisphere where it is the seasonal equivalent to october in the northern hemisphere and vice versa </s>
<s> april starts on the same day of the week as july in all years and january in leap years </s>
<s> april ends on the same day of the week as december every year </s>
<s> august is the eighth month of the year in the gregorian calendar and one of seven gregorian months with a length of num days </s>
<s> this month was originally named sextilis in latin because it was the sixth month in the original ten-month roman calendar under romulus in num bc when march was the first month of the year </s>
<s> about num bc it became the eighth month when january and february were added to the year before march by king numa pompilius who also gave it num days </s>
<s> julius caesar added two days when he created the julian calendar in num bc giving it its modern length of num days </s>
<s> in num bc it was renamed in honor of augustus who did not take a day from february see the debunked theory on month lengths </s>
<s> he chose this month to take his name rather than his birth month which was traditional as a mark of honor to the defeated queen cleopatra the last ruler of egypt this being her birth month </s>
<s> in the southern hemisphere august is the seasonal equivalent of february in the northern hemisphere </s>
<s> in common years no other month starts on the same day of the week as august though in leap years february starts on the same day </s>
<s> august ends on the same day of the week as november every year </s>
<s> august birthstone is the peridot or onyx </s>
<s> its birth flower is the gladiolus or poppy meaning beauty strength of character love marriage and family </s>
<s> art is the product or process of deliberately arranging items often with symbolic significance in a way that influences and affects one or more of the senses emotions and intellect </s>
<s> it encompasses a diverse range of human activities creations and modes of expression including music literature film photography sculpture and paintings </s>
<s> the meaning of art is explored in a branch of philosophy known as aesthetics and even disciplines such as history and psychology analyze its relationship with humans and generations </s>
<s> traditionally the term art was used to refer to any skill or mastery </s>
<s> this conception changed during the romantic period when art came to be seen as a special faculty of the human mind to be classified with religion and science </s>
<s> generally art is made with the intention of stimulating thoughts and emotions </s>
<s> philosopher richard wollheim distinguishes three approaches to assessing the aesthetic value of art the realist whereby aesthetic quality is an absolute value independent of any human view the objectivist whereby it is also an absolute value but is dependent on general human experience and the relativist position whereby it is not an absolute value but depends on and varies with the human experience of different humans </s>
<s> an object may be characterized by the intentions or lack thereof of its creator regardless of its apparent purpose </s>
<s> a cup which ostensibly can be used as a container may be considered art if intended solely as an ornament while a painting may be deemed craft if mass-produced </s>
<s> the nature of art has been described by wollheim as one of the most elusive of the traditional problems of human culture </s>
<s> it has been defined as a vehicle for the expression or communication of emotions and ideas a means for exploring and appreciating formal elements for their own sake and as mimesis or representation </s>
<s> leo tolstoy identified art as a use of indirect means to communicate from one person to another </s>
<s> benedetto croce and collingwood advanced the idealist view that art expresses emotions and that the work of art therefore essentially exists in the mind of the creator </s>
<s> the theory of art as form has its roots in the philosophy of immanuel kant and was developed in the early twentieth century by roger fry and clive bell </s>
<s> art as mimesis or representation has deep roots in the philosophy of aristotle </s>
<s> more recently thinkers influenced by martin heidegger have interpreted art as the means by which a community develops for itself a medium for self-expression and interpretation </s>
<s> britannica online defines art as the use of skill and imagination in the creation of aesthetic objects environments or experiences that can be shared with others </s>
<s> by this definition of the word artistic works have existed for almost as long as humankind from early pre-historic art to contemporary art however some theories restrict the concept to modern western societies </s>
<s> adorno said in num it is now taken for granted that nothing which concerns art can be taken for granted any more neither art itself nor art in relationship to the whole nor even the right of art to exist </s>
<s> the first and broadest sense of art is the one that has remained closest to the older latin meaning which roughly translates to skill or craft </s>
<s> a few examples where this meaning proves very broad include artifact artificial artifice medical arts and military arts </s>
<s> however there are many other colloquial uses of the word all with some relation to its etymology </s>
<s> the second and more recent sense of the word art is as an abbreviation for creative art or fine art </s>
<s> fine art means that a skill is being used to express the artist creativity or to engage the audience aesthetic sensibilities or to draw the audience towards consideration of the finer things </s>
<s> often if the skill is being used in a common or practical way people will consider it a craft instead of art </s>
<s> likewise if the skill is being used in a commercial or industrial way it will be considered commercial art instead of fine art </s>
<s> on the other hand crafts and design are sometimes considered applied art </s>
<s> some art followers have argued that the difference between fine art and applied art has more to do with value judgments made about the art than any clear definitional difference </s>
<s> however even fine art often has goals beyond pure creativity and self-expression </s>
<s> the purpose of works of art may be to communicate ideas such as in politically spiritually or philosophically motivated art to create a sense of beauty see aesthetics to explore the nature of perception for pleasure or to generate strong emotions </s>
<s> the purpose may also be seemingly nonexistent </s>
<s> art can describe several things a study of creative skill a process of using the creative skill a product of the creative skill or the audience experience with the creative skill </s>
<s> the creative arts art as discipline are a collection of disciplines arts that produce artworks art as objects that are compelled by a personal drive art as activity and echo or reflect a message mood or symbolism for the viewer to interpret art as experience </s>
<s> artworks can be defined by purposeful creative interpretations of limitless concepts or ideas in order to communicate something to another person </s>
<s> artworks can be explicitly made for this purpose or interpreted on the basis of images or objects </s>
<s> art is something that stimulates an individual thoughts emotions beliefs or ideas through the senses </s>
<s> it is also an expression of an idea and it can take many different forms and serve many different purposes </s>
<s> although the application of scientific knowledge to derive a new scientific theory involves skill and results in the creation of something new this represents science only and is not categorized as art </s>
<s> sculptures cave paintings rock paintings and petroglyphs from the upper paleolithic dating to roughly years ago have been found but the precise meaning of such art is often disputed because so little is known about the cultures that produced them </s>
<s> the oldest art objects in the a series of tiny drilled snail shells about years were discovered in a south african cave </s>
<s> many great traditions in art have a foundation in the art of one of the great ancient civilizations ancient egypt mesopotamia persia india china ancient greece rome as well as inca maya and olmec </s>
<s> each of these centers of early civilization developed a unique and characteristic style in its art </s>
<s> because of the size and duration of these civilizations more of their art works have survived and more of their influence has been transmitted to other cultures and later times </s>
<s> some also have provided the first records of how artists worked </s>
<s> for example this period of greek art saw a veneration of the human physical form and the development of equivalent skills to show musculature poise beauty and anatomically correct proportions </s>
<s> in byzantine and medieval art of the western middle ages much art focused on the expression of biblical and nonmaterial truths and used styles that showed the higher unseen glory of a heavenly world such as the use of gold in the background of paintings or glass in mosaics or windows which also presented figures in idealized patterned flat forms </s>
<s> nevertheless a classical realist tradition persisted in small byzantine works and realism steadily grew in the art of catholic europe </s>
<s> renaissance art had a greatly increased emphasis on the realistic depiction of the material world and the place of humans in it reflected in the corporeality of the human body and development of a systematic method of graphical perspective to depict recession in a three-dimensional picture space </s>
<s> in the east islamic art rejection of iconography led to emphasis on geometric patterns calligraphy and architecture </s>
<s> further east religion dominated artistic styles and forms too </s>
<s> india and tibet saw emphasis on painted sculptures and dance while religious painting borrowed many conventions from sculpture and tended to bright contrasting colors with emphasis on outlines </s>
<s> china saw the flourishing of many art forms jade carving bronzework pottery including the stunning terracotta army of emperor qin poetry calligraphy music painting drama fiction </s>
<s> chinese styles vary greatly from era to era and each one is traditionally named after the ruling dynasty </s>
<s> so for example tang dynasty paintings are monochromatic and sparse emphasizing idealized landscapes but ming dynasty paintings are busy and colorful and focus on telling stories via setting and composition </s>
<s> japan names its styles after imperial dynasties too and also saw much interplay between the styles of calligraphy and painting </s>
<s> woodblock printing became important in japan after the num century </s>
<s> the western age of enlightenment in the num century saw artistic depictions of physical and rational certainties of the clockwork universe as well as politically revolutionary visions of a post-monarchist world such as blake portrayal of newton as a divine geometer or david propagandistic paintings </s>
<s> this led to romantic rejections of this in favor of pictures of the emotional side and individuality of humans exemplified in the novels of goethe </s>
<s> the late num century then saw a host of artistic movements such as academic art symbolism impressionism and fauvism among others </s>
<s> the history of twentieth century art is a narrative of endless possibilities and the search for new standards each being torn down in succession by the next </s>
<s> thus the parameters of impressionism expressionism fauvism cubism dadaism surrealism can not be maintained very much beyond the time of their invention </s>
<s> increasing global interaction during this time saw an equivalent influence of other cultures into western art such as pablo picasso being influenced by african sculpture </s>
<s> japanese woodblock prints which had themselves been influenced by western renaissance draftsmanship had an immense influence on impressionism and subsequent development </s>
<s> later african sculptures were taken up by picasso and to some extent by matisse </s>
<s> similarly the west has had huge impacts on eastern art in the num and num centuries with originally western ideas like communism and post-modernism exerting a powerful influence on artistic styles </s>
<s> modernism the idealistic search for truth gave way in the latter half of the num century to a realization of its unattainability </s>
<s> relativism was accepted as an unavoidable truth which led to the period of contemporary art and postmodern criticism where cultures of the world and of history are seen as changing forms which can be appreciated and drawn from only with irony </s>
<s> furthermore the separation of cultures is increasingly blurred and some argue it is now more appropriate to think in terms of a global culture rather than regional cultures </s>
<s> art tends to facilitate intuitive rather than rational understanding and is usually consciously created with this intention </s>
<s> fine art intentionally serves no other purpose </s>
<s> as a result of this impetus works of art are elusive refractive to attempts at classification because they can be appreciated in more than one way and are often susceptible to many different interpretations </s>
<s> in the case of ricault raft of the medusa special knowledge concerning the shipwreck that the painting depicts is not a prerequisite to appreciating it but allows the appreciation of ricault political intentions in the piece </s>
<s> even art that superficially depicts a mundane event or object may invite reflection upon elevated themes </s>
<s> traditionally the highest achievements of art demonstrate a high level of ability or fluency within a medium </s>
<s> this characteristic might be considered a point of contention since many modern artists most notably conceptual artists do not themselves create the works they conceive or do not even create the work in a conventional demonstrative sense </s>
<s> art has a transformative capacity it confers particularly appealing or aesthetically satisfying structures or forms upon an original set of unrelated passive constituents </s>
<s> the creative arts are often divided into more specific categories each related to its technique or medium such as decorative arts plastic arts performing arts or literature </s>
<s> unlike scientific fields art is one of the few subjects that are academically organized according to technique </s>
<s> an artistic medium is the substance or material the artistic work is made from and may also refer to the technique used </s>
<s> for example paint is a medium used in painting and paper is a medium used in drawing </s>
<s> an art form is the specific shape or quality an artistic expression takes </s>
<s> the media used often influence the form </s>
<s> for example the form of a sculpture must exist in space in three dimensions and respond to gravity </s>
<s> the constraints and limitations of a particular medium are thus called its formal qualities </s>
<s> to give another example the formal qualities of painting are the canvas texture color and brush texture </s>
<s> the formal qualities of video games are non-linearity interactivity and virtual presence </s>
<s> the form of a particular work of art is determined by the formal qualities of the media and is not related to the intentions of the artist or the reactions of the audience in any way what so ever </s>
<s> a genre is a set of conventions and styles within a particular medium </s>
<s> for instance well recognized genres in film are western horror and romantic comedy </s>
<s> genres in music include death metal and trip hop </s>
<s> genres in painting include still life and pastoral landscape </s>
<s> a particular work of art may bend or combine genres but each genre has a recognizable group of conventions s and tropes </s>
<s> one note the word genre has a second older meaning within painting genre painting was a phrase used in the num to num centuries to refer specifically to paintings of scenes of everyday life and can still be used in this way </s>
<s> the style of an artwork artist or movement is the distinctive method and form followed by the respective art </s>
<s> any loose brushy dripped or poured abstract painting is called expressionistic </s>
<s> often a style is linked with a particular historical period set of ideas and particular artistic movement </s>
<s> so jackson pollock is called an abstract expressionist </s>
<s> because a particular style may have specific cultural meanings it is important to be sensitive to differences in technique </s>
<s> roy lichtenstein num num paintings are not pointillist despite his uses of dots because they are not aligned with the original proponents of pointillism </s>
<s> lichtenstein used ben-day dots they are evenly spaced and create flat areas of color </s>
<s> dots of this type used in halftone printing were originally used in comic strips and newspapers to reproduce color </s>
<s> lichtenstein thus uses the dots as a style to question the high art of painting with the low art of comics to comment on class distinctions in culture </s>
<s> lichtenstein is thus associated with the american pop art movement num </s>
<s> pointillism is a technique in late impressionism num developed especially by the artist georges seurat that employs dots that are spaced in a way to create variation in color and depth in an attempt to paint images that were closer to the way people really see color </s>
<s> both artists use dots but the particular style and technique relate to the artistic movement adopted by each artist </s>
<s> these are all ways of beginning to define a work of art to narrow it down </s>
<s> imagine you are an art critic whose mission is to compare the meanings you find in a wide range of individual artworks </s>
<s> how would you proceed with your task </s>
<s> one way to begin is to examine the materials each artist selected in making an object image video or event </s>
<s> the decision to cast a sculpture in bronze for instance inevitably effects its meaning the work becomes something different from how it might be if it had been cast in gold or plastic or chocolate even if everything else about the artwork remains the same </s>
<s> next you might examine how the materials in each artwork have become an arrangement of shapes colors textures and lines </s>
<s> these in turn are organized into various patterns and compositional structures </s>
<s> in your interpretation you would comment on how salient features of the form contribute to the overall meaning of the finished artwork </s>
<s> but in the end the meaning of most artworks is not exhausted by a discussion of materials techniques and form </s>
<s> most interpretations also include a discussion of the ideas and feelings the artwork engenders </s>
<s> art can connote a sense of trained ability or mastery of a medium </s>
<s> art can also simply refer to the developed and efficient use of a language to convey meaning with immediacy and or depth </s>
<s> art is an act of expressing feelings thoughts and observations </s>
<s> there is an understanding that is reached with the material as a result of handling it which facilitates one thought processes </s>
<s> a common view is that the epithet art particular in its elevated sense requires a certain level of creative expertise by the artist whether this be a demonstration of technical ability or an originality in stylistic approach such as in the plays of shakespeare or a combination of these two </s>
<s> traditionally skill of execution was viewed as a quality inseparable from art and thus necessary for its success for leonardo da vinci art neither more nor less than his other endeavors was a manifestation of skill </s>
<s> rembrandt work now praised for its ephemeral virtues was most admired by his contemporaries for its virtuosity </s>
<s> at the turn of the num century the adroit performances of john singer sargent were alternately admired and viewed with skepticism for their manual fluency yet at nearly the same time the artist who would become the era most recognized and peripatetic iconoclast pablo picasso was completing a traditional academic training at which he excelled </s>
<s> a common contemporary criticism of some modern art occurs along the lines of objecting to the apparent lack of skill or ability required in the production of the artistic object </s>
<s> in conceptual art marcel duchamp fountain is among the first examples of pieces wherein the artist used found objects ready-made and exercised no traditionally recognized set of skills </s>
<s> tracey emin my bed or damien hirst the physical impossibility of death in the mind of someone living follow this example and also manipulate the mass media </s>
<s> emin slept and engaged in other activities in her bed before placing the result in a gallery as work of art </s>
<s> hirst came up with the conceptual design for the artwork but has left most of the eventual creation of many works to employed artisans </s>
<s> hirst celebrity is founded entirely on his ability to produce shocking concepts </s>
<s> the actual production in many conceptual and contemporary works of art is a matter of assembly of found objects </s>
<s> however there are many modernist and contemporary artists who continue to excel in the skills of drawing and painting and in creating hands-on works of art </s>
<s> somewhat in relation to the above the word art is also used to apply judgments of value as in such expressions as that meal was a work of art the cook is an artist or the art of deception the highly attained level of skill of the deceiver is praised </s>
<s> it is this use of the word as a measure of high quality and high value that gives the term its flavor of subjectivity </s>
<s> making judgments of value requires a basis for criticism </s>
<s> at the simplest level a way to determine whether the impact of the object on the senses meets the criteria to be considered art is whether it is perceived to be attractive or repulsive </s>
<s> though perception is always colored by experience and is necessarily subjective it is commonly understood that what is not somehow aesthetically satisfying can not be art </s>
<s> however good art is not always or even regularly aesthetically appealing to a majority of viewers </s>
<s> in other words an artist prime motivation need not be the pursuit of the aesthetic </s>
<s> also art often depicts terrible images made for social moral or thought-provoking reasons </s>
<s> for example francisco goya painting depicting the spanish shootings of num of may num is a graphic depiction of a firing squad executing several pleading civilians </s>
<s> yet at the same time the horrific imagery demonstrates goya keen artistic ability in composition and execution and produces fitting social and political outrage </s>
<s> thus the debate continues as to what mode of aesthetic satisfaction if any is required to define art </s>
<s> the assumption of new values or the rebellion against accepted notions of what is aesthetically superior need not occur concurrently with a complete abandonment of the pursuit of what is aesthetically appealing </s>
<s> indeed the reverse is often true that the revision of what is popularly conceived of as being aesthetically appealing allows for a re-invigoration of aesthetic sensibility and a new appreciation for the standards of art itself </s>
<s> countless schools have proposed their own ways to define quality yet they all seem to agree in at least one point once their aesthetic choices are accepted the value of the work of art is determined by its capacity to transcend the limits of its chosen medium to strike some universal chord by the rarity of the skill of the artist or in its accurate reflection in what is termed the zeitgeist </s>
<s> art is often intended to appeal to and connect with human emotion </s>
<s> it can arouse aesthetic or moral feelings and can be understood as a way of communicating these feelings </s>
<s> artists express something so that their audience is aroused to some extent but they do not have to do so consciously </s>
<s> art may be considered an exploration of the human condition that is what it is to be human </s>
<s> art has had a great number of different functions throughout its history making its purpose difficult to abstract or quantify to any single concept </s>
<s> this does not imply that the purpose of art is vague but that it has had many unique different reasons for being created </s>
<s> some of these functions of art are provided in the following outline </s>
<s> the different purposes of art may be grouped according to those that are non-motivated and those that are motivated levi-strauss </s>
<s> the non-motivated purposes of art are those that are integral to being human transcend the individual or do not fulfill a specific external purpose </s>
<s> aristotle said imitation then is one instinct of our nature </s>
<s> in this sense art as creativity is something humans must do by their very nature no other species creates art and is therefore beyond utility </s>
<s> motivated purposes of art refer to intentional conscious actions on the part of the artists or creator </s>
<s> these may be to bring about political change to comment on an aspect of society to convey a specific emotion or mood to address personal psychology to illustrate another discipline to with commercial arts to sell a product or simply as a form of communication </s>
<s> the functions of art described above are not mutually exclusive as many of them may overlap </s>
<s> for example art for the purpose of entertainment may also seek to sell a product the movie or video game </s>
<s> odore ricault raft of the medusa num was a social commentary on a current event unprecedented at the time </s>
<s> douard manet le jeuner sur num was considered scandalous not because of the nude woman but because she is seated next to men fully dressed in the clothing of the time rather than in robes of the antique world </s>
<s> john singer sargent madame pierre gautreau madam x num caused a huge uproar over the reddish pink used to color the woman ear lobe considered far too suggestive and supposedly ruining the high-society model reputation </s>
<s> in the twentieth century pablo picasso guernica num used arresting cubist techniques and stark monochromatic oils to depict the harrowing consequences of a contemporary bombing of a small ancient basque town </s>
<s> leon golub interrogation iii num depicts a female nude hooded detainee strapped to a chair her legs open to reveal her sexual organs surrounded by two tormentors dressed in everyday clothing </s>
<s> andres serrano piss christ num is a photograph of a crucifix sacred to the christian religion and representing christ sacrifice and final suffering submerged in a glass of the artist own urine </s>
<s> the resulting uproar led to comments in the united states senate about public funding of the arts </s>
<s> in the nineteenth century artists were primarily concerned with ideas of truth and beauty </s>
<s> the aesthetic theorist john ruskin who championed what he saw as the naturalism of turner saw art role as the communication by artifice of an essential truth that could only be found in nature </s>
<s> the definition and evaluation of art has become especially problematic since the num century </s>
<s> richard wollheim distinguishes three approaches the realist whereby aesthetic quality is an absolute value independent of any human view the objectivist whereby it is also an absolute value but is dependent on general human experience and the relativist position whereby it is not an absolute value but depends on and varies with the human experience of different humans </s>
<s> the arrival of modernism in the late nineteenth century lead to a radical break in the conception of the function of art and then again in the late twentieth century with the advent of postmodernism </s>
<s> clement greenberg num article modernist painting defines modern art as the use of characteristic methods of a discipline to criticize the discipline itself </s>
<s> greenberg originally applied this idea to the abstract expressionist movement and used it as a way to understand and justify flat non-illusionistic abstract painting after greenberg several important art theorists emerged such as michael fried clark rosalind krauss linda nochlin and griselda pollock among others </s>
<s> though only originally intended as a way of understanding a specific set of artists greenberg definition of modern art is important to many of the ideas of art within the various art movements of the num century and early num century </s>
<s> pop artists like andy warhol became both noteworthy and influential through work including and possibly critiquing popular culture as well as the art world </s>
<s> artists of the num num and num expanded this technique of self-criticism beyond high art to all cultural image-making including fashion images comics billboards and pornography </s>
<s> disputes as to whether or not to classify something as a work of art are referred to as classificatory disputes about art </s>
<s> classificatory disputes in the num century have included cubist and impressionist paintings duchamp fountain the movies superlative imitations of banknotes conceptual art and video games </s>
<s> philosopher david novitz has argued that disagreement about the definition of art are rarely the heart of the problem </s>
<s> rather the passionate concerns and interests that humans vest in their social life are so much a part of all classificatory disputes about art novitz num </s>
<s> according to novitz classificatory disputes are more often disputes about societal values and where society is trying to go than they are about theory proper </s>
<s> for example when the daily mail criticized hirst and emin work by arguing for years art has been one of our great civilising forces </s>
<s> today pickled sheep and soiled beds threaten to make barbarians of us all they are not advancing a definition or theory about art but questioning the value of hirst and emin work </s>
<s> in num arthur danto suggested a thought experiment showing that the status of an artifact as work of art results from the ideas a culture applies to it rather than its inherent physical or perceptible qualities </s>
<s> cultural interpretation an art theory of some kind is therefore constitutive of an object arthood </s>
<s> anti-art is a label for art that intentionally challenges the established parameters and values of art it is term associated with dadaism and attributed to marcel duchamp just before world war i when he was making art from found objects </s>
<s> one of these fountain num an ordinary urinal has achieved considerable prominence and influence on art </s>
<s> anti-art is a feature of work by situationist international the lo-fi mail art movement and the young british artists though it is a form still rejected by the stuckists who describe themselves as anti-anti-art </s>
<s> art has been perceived by some as belonging to some social classes and often excluding others </s>
<s> in this context art is seen as an upper-class activity associated with wealth the ability to purchase art and the leisure required to pursue or enjoy it </s>
<s> for example the palaces of versailles or the hermitage in petersburg with their vast collections of art amassed by the fabulously wealthy royalty of europe exemplify this view </s>
<s> collecting such art is the preserve of the rich or of governments and institutions </s>
<s> fine and expensive goods have been popular markers of status in many cultures and they continue to be so today </s>
<s> there has been a cultural push in the other direction since at least num when the louvre which had been a private palace of the kings of france was opened to the public as an art museum during the french revolution </s>
<s> most modern public museums and art education programs for children in schools can be traced back to this impulse to have art available to everyone </s>
<s> museums in the united states tend to be gifts from the very rich to the masses the metropolitan museum of art in new york city for example was created by john taylor johnston a railroad executive whose personal art collection seeded the museum </s>
<s> but despite all this at least one of the important functions of art in the num century remains as a marker of wealth and social status </s>
<s> there have been attempts by artists to create art that can not be bought by the wealthy as a status object </s>
<s> one of the prime original motivators of much of the art of the late num and num was to create art that could not be bought and sold </s>
<s> it is necessary to present something more than mere objects said the major post war german artist joseph beuys </s>
<s> this time period saw the rise of such things as performance art video art and conceptual art </s>
<s> the idea was that if the artwork was a performance that would leave nothing behind or was simply an idea it could not be bought and sold </s>
<s> democratic precepts revolving around the idea that a work of art is a commodity impelled the aesthetic innovation which germinated in the mid-1960s and was reaped throughout the num </s>
<s> artists broadly identified under the heading of conceptual art substituting performance and publishing activities for engagement with both the material and materialistic concerns of painted or sculptural form have endeavored to undermine the art object qua object </s>
<s> in the decades since these ideas have been somewhat lost as the art market has learned to sell limited edition dvds of video works invitations to exclusive performance art pieces and the objects left over from conceptual pieces </s>
<s> many of these performances create works that are only understood by the elite who have been educated as to why an idea or video or piece of apparent garbage may be considered art </s>
<s> the marker of status becomes understanding the work instead of necessarily owning it and the artwork remains an upper-class activity </s>
<s> with the widespread use of dvd recording technology in the early num artists and the gallery system that derives its profits from the sale of artworks gained an important means of controlling the sale of video and computer artworks in limited editions to collectors </s>
<s> a named a plural aes is the first letter and a vowel in the basic modern latin alphabet </s>
<s> it is similar to the ancient greek letter alpha from which it derives </s>
<s> a can be traced to a pictogram of an ox head in egyptian hieroglyph or the proto-sinaitic alphabet </s>
<s> in num the phoenician alphabet letter had a linear form that served as the base for some later forms </s>
<s> its name must have corresponded closely to the hebrew or arabic aleph </s>
<s> when the ancient greeks adopted the alphabet they had no use for the glottal stop that the letter had denoted in phoenician and other semitic languages so they used the sign to represent the vowel a and kept its name with a minor change alpha </s>
<s> in the earliest greek inscriptions after the greek dark ages dating to the num century bc the letter rests upon its side but in the greek alphabet of later times it generally resembles the modern capital letter although many local varieties can be distinguished by the shortening of one leg or by the angle at which the cross line is set </s>
<s> the etruscans brought the greek alphabet to their civilization in the italian peninsula and left the letter unchanged </s>
<s> the romans later adopted the etruscan alphabet to write the latin language and the resulting letter was preserved in the modern latin alphabet used to write many languages including english </s>
<s> the letter has two minuscule lower-case forms </s>
<s> the form used in most current handwriting consists of a circle and vertical stoke called latin alpha or script a </s>
<s> most printed material uses a form consisting of a small loop with an arc over it a </s>
<s> both derive from the majuscule capital form </s>
<s> in greek handwriting it was common to join the left leg and horizontal stroke into a single loop as demonstrated by the uncial version shown </s>
<s> many fonts then made the right leg vertical </s>
<s> in some of these the serif that began the right leg stroke developed into an arc resulting in the printed form while in others it was dropped resulting in the modern handwritten form </s>
<s> in english a by itself frequently denotes the near-open front unrounded vowel as in pad the open back unrounded vowel as in father or in concert with a later orthographic vowel the diphthong as in ace and major due to effects of the great vowel shift </s>
<s> in most other languages that use the latin alphabet a denotes an open front unrounded vowel a </s>
<s> in the international phonetic alphabet variants of a denote various vowels </s>
<s> in x-sampa capital a denotes the open back unrounded vowel and lowercase a denotes the open front unrounded vowel </s>
<s> a is the third common used letter in english and the second most common in spanish and french </s>
<s> in one study on average about of letters used in english tend to be s while the number is in spanish and in french </s>
<s> a is often used to denote something or someone of a better or more prestigious quality or status a a or a the best grade that can be assigned by teachers for students schoolwork a grade for clean restaurants a-list celebrities </s>
<s> such associations can have a motivating effect as exposure to the letter a has been found to improve performance when compared with other letters </s>
<s> a turned a is used by the international phonetic alphabet for the near-open central vowel while a turned capital a is used in predicate logic to specify universal quantification </s>
<s> in unicode the capital a is codepoint u and the lower case a is u </s>
<s> the ascii code for capital a is num and for lower case a is num or in binary num and num respectively </s>
<s> the ebcdic code for capital a is num and for lowercase a is num or in binary num and num respectively </s>
<s> the numeric character references in html and xml are and for upper and lower case respectively </s>
<s> administrators commonly known as admins or in the past sysops system operators are wikipedia editors trusted with access to restricted technical features tools </s>
<s> for example administrators can protect delete and restore pages move pages over redirects hide and delete page revisions and block other editors </s>
<s> see for more information about the tools administrators have </s>
<s> administrators assume these responsibilities as volunteers they are not acting as employees of the wikimedia foundation </s>
<s> they are never required to use their tools and must never use them to gain an advantage in a dispute in which they are involved </s>
<s> as of the english wikipedia has administrators </s>
<s> in the very early days of wikipedia all users functioned as administrators to perform various administrative functions using a single password that was handed out fairly freely </s>
<s> the modern form of administratorship is the result of a code modification which changed from password access to role-based access control under which individual accounts can be flagged as per the roles they could perform which in turn determined they could access </s>
<s> during this transition it was emphasized that administrators should never develop into a special subgroup </s>
<s> rather administrators should be a part of the community like other editors with no special powers or privileges when acting as editors </s>
<s> administrators are also expected to observe a high standard of conduct </s>
<s> likewise in general most maintenance and administration aspects of wikipedia can be conducted by anyone without the specific technical functions granted to administrators </s>
<s> an often paraphrased comment about the title and process of administratorship was made by jimmy wales in february num referred to as sysops here </s>
<s> stated simply while the correct use of the tools and appropriate conduct should be considered important merely being an administrator should not be </s>
<s> whether this description remains eight years after it was first is a matter of continuing debate </s>
<s> nonetheless it is still a useful adage </s>
<s> note each individual wikimedia project including other wikipedias may have its own policy for granting adminship </s>
<s> the english wikipedia has no official requirements you must meet to become a wikipedia administrator </s>
<s> anyone can apply regardless of their wikipedia experience </s>
<s> administrators are expected to uphold the trust and confidence of the community however and considerable experience is usually expected </s>
<s> each editor will personally assess their confidence in a particular candidate readiness in their own way </s>
<s> before requesting or accepting a nomination candidates should generally be active and regular wikipedia contributors for at least several months be familiar with the procedures and practices of wikipedia respect and understand its policies and have gained the general trust of the community </s>
<s> if at this point you are interested in requesting adminship you should first read the guide to requests for adminship and the nomination instructions </s>
<s> when you are ready to apply you may add your nomination to the requests for adminship rfa page according to the aforementioned instructions </s>
<s> a discussion not a vote will then take place among fellow editors about whether you should become an administrator </s>
<s> after seven days a bureaucrat will determine if there is consensus to approve your request </s>
<s> this is sometimes difficult to ascertain and is not a numerical measurement but as a general descriptive rule of thumb most of those above num approval pass and most of those below num fail </s>
<s> only one account of a given person may have administrative tools </s>
<s> the only exceptions are bots with administrative access </s>
<s> see </s>
<s> adminship is granted indefinitely and is only removed upon request or under circumstances involving high-level intervention see administrator abuse below </s>
<s> administrator rights can be particularly helpful for working in certain areas of wikipedia </s>
<s> see also admins willing to make difficult blocks where admins willing to handle more difficult blocks and other situations can make themselves known and the administrators channel on irc for irc users </s>
<s> uninvolved administrators can also help in the management of arbitration committee remedies and the dispute resolution concerning chronic disruptive areas and situations </s>
<s> administrators acting in this role are neutral they do not have any direct involvement in the issues they are helping people with </s>
<s> lists can be found at general sanctions and arbitration enforcement requests and the related arbitration enforcement noticeboard </s>
<s> two main noticeboards exist on which general administrator discussion takes place any user may post or take part in discussions there </s>
<s> if you are granted access you must exercise care in using these new functions especially the ability to delete pages and to block users and ip addresses </s>
<s> you can learn how to do these things at the administrators how-to guide and the new administrator school </s>
<s> please also look at the pages linked from the administrators reading list before using your administrative abilities </s>
<s> occasional lapses are accepted but serious or repeated lapses may not always be </s>
<s> administrator tools are also used with judgement it can take some time for a new administrator to learn when it best to use the tools and it can take months to gain a good sense of how long a period to set when using tools such as blocking and page protection in difficult disputes </s>
<s> new administrators are strongly encouraged to start slowly and build up experience on areas they are used to and by asking others if unsure </s>
<s> administrators and all other users with extra tools are expected to have a strong password to prevent damage in the case of a compromised account </s>
<s> administrators are expected to lead by example and to behave in a respectful civil manner in their interactions with others </s>
<s> administrators are expected to follow wikipedia policies and to perform their duties to the best of their abilities </s>
<s> occasional mistakes are entirely compatible with adminship administrators are not expected to be perfect </s>
<s> however sustained or serious disruption of wikipedia is incompatible with the status of administrator and consistently or egregiously poor judgment may result in the removal of administrator status </s>
<s> most especially administrators should strive to model appropriate standards of courtesy and civility to other editors and to one another </s>
<s> num num num num </s>
<s> administrators should bear in mind that at this stage in the evolution of wikipedia they have hundreds of colleagues </s>
<s> therefore if an administrator finds that he or she can not adhere to site policies and remain civil even toward users exhibiting problematic behavior while addressing a given issue then the administrator should bring the issue to a noticeboard or refer it to another administrator to address rather than potentially compound the problem by poor conduct of his or her own </s>
<s> administrators are accountable for their actions involving administrator tools and unexplained administrator actions can demoralize other editors who lack such tools </s>
<s> subject only to the bounds of civility avoiding personal attacks and reasonable good faith editors are free to question or to criticize administrator actions </s>
<s> administrators are expected to respond promptly and civilly to queries about their wikipedia-related conduct and administrator actions and to justify them when needed </s>
<s> administrators who seriously or repeatedly act in a problematic manner or have lost the trust or confidence of the community may be sanctioned or have their access removed </s>
<s> in the past this has happened or been suggested for </s>
<s> it is extremely important that administrators have strong passwords and follow appropriate personal security practices </s>
<s> because they have the potential to cause site-wide damage with a single edit a compromised admin account will be blocked and its privileges removed on grounds of site security </s>
<s> in certain circumstances the revocation of privileges may be permanent </s>
<s> discretion on resysopping temporarily desysopped administrators is left to bureaucrats who will consider whether the rightful owner has been correctly identified and their view on the incident and the management and security including likely future security of the account </s>
<s> administrators should never share their password or account with any other person for any reason </s>
<s> if they find out their password has been compromised or their account has been otherwise compromised even by an editor or individual they know and trust they should attempt to change it immediately or otherwise report it to a steward for temporary de-sysopping </s>
<s> users who fail to report unauthorized use of their account will be desysopped </s>
<s> unauthorized use is considered controversial circumstances and access will not be automatically restored </s>
<s> in general editors should not act as administrators in cases in which they have been involved </s>
<s> this is because involved administrators may have or may be seen to have a conflict of interest in disputes they have been a party to or have strong feelings about </s>
<s> involvement is generally construed very broadly by the community to include current or past conflicts with an editor or editors and disputes on topics regardless of the nature age or outcome of the dispute </s>
<s> one important caveat is that an administrator who has interacted with an editor or topic area purely in an administrative role or whose prior involvement are minor or obvious edits which do not speak to bias is not involved and is not prevented from acting in an administrative capacity in relation to that editor or topic area </s>
<s> this is because one of the roles of administrators is precisely to deal with such matters at length if necessary </s>
<s> warnings calm and reasonable discussion and explanation of those warnings advice about community norms and suggestions on possible wordings and approaches do not make an administrator involved </s>
<s> in cases which are straightforward blatant vandalism the community has historically endorsed the obvious action of any administrator even if involved on the basis that any reasonable administrator would have probably come to the same conclusion </s>
<s> although there are exceptions to the prohibition on involved editors taking administrative action it is best practice in cases where an administrator may be seen to be involved that they pass the matter to another administrator via the relevant noticeboards </s>
<s> a user seeking administrator or uninvolved user help may use the template to request assistance </s>
<s> requests will appear in category requests for uninvolved help until removed </s>
<s> if a user thinks an administrator has acted improperly against or another editor he or she should express their concerns directly to the administrator responsible and try to come to a resolution in an orderly and civil manner </s>
<s> however if the matter is not resolved between the two parties users can take further action see dispute resolution process below </s>
<s> for more possibilities see administrators noticeboard incidents and requests for comment use of administrator privileges </s>
<s> note if the complaining user was blocked improperly by an administrator they may appeal the block email the arbitration committee directly </s>
<s> administrators are expected to have good judgment and are presumed to have considered carefully any actions or decisions they carry out as administrators </s>
<s> administrators may disagree but except for clear and obvious mistakes administrative actions should not be reversed without good cause careful thought and if likely to be objected usually some kind of courtesy discussion </s>
<s> when another administrator has already reversed an administrative action there is very rarely any valid reason for the original or another administrator to reinstate the same or similar action again without clear discussion leading to a consensus decision </s>
<s> wheel warring is when an administrator action is reversed by another admin but rather than discussing the disagreement administrator tools are then used in a combative fashion to undo or redo the action </s>
<s> with very few exceptions once an administrative action has been reverted it should not be restored without consensus </s>
<s> do not repeat a reversed administrative action when you know that another administrator opposes it </s>
<s> do not continue a chain of administrative reversals without discussion </s>
<s> resolve admin disputes by discussing </s>
<s> wheel warring usually results in an immediate request for arbitration </s>
<s> sanctions for wheel warring have varied from reprimands and cautions to temporary blocks to desysopping even for first time incidents </s>
<s> there have been several relevant arbitration cases on the subject of wheel-warring </s>
<s> the term was also used historically for an administrator improperly reversing some kinds of very formal action </s>
<s> wikipedia works on the spirit of consensus disputes should be settled through civil discussion rather than power wrestling </s>
<s> there are few issues so critical that fighting is better than discussion or worth losing your own good standing for </s>
<s> if you feel the urge to wheel war try these alternatives </s>
<s> there are a few exceptional circumstances to this general principle </s>
<s> note these are one-way exceptions </s>
<s> if an administrator abuses administrative powers these powers can be removed </s>
<s> administrators may be removed either by jimmy wales stewards or by a ruling of the arbitration committee </s>
<s> at their discretion lesser penalties may also be assessed against problematic administrators including the restriction of their use of certain powers or placement on administrative probation </s>
<s> the technical ability to remove administrator status rests with stewards and jimmy wales </s>
<s> there have been several procedures suggested for a community based desysop process but none of them have achieved consensus </s>
<s> some administrators will voluntarily stand for reconfirmation under certain circumstances see administrator recall </s>
<s> users may use dispute resolution to request comment on an administrator suitability </s>
<s> removal of rights does not currently show up in the usual user logs </s>
<s> use for full links to user rights information and full logs including the stewards global logs on meta as well or special listusers to verify a users current rights </s>
<s> see bugzilla </s>
<s> administrators may request that their access to administrative tools be removed at m steward </s>
<s> administrators who stepped down in good standing that is not in controversial circumstances may request their administrator status be restored at any time by a bureaucrat </s>
<s> this is commonly done at the bureaucrats noticeboard </s>
<s> some administrators may become inactive for a period of time or may retire altogether </s>
<s> in these instances as noted on the perennial proposals page consensus has been that they will retain their rights unless they specifically request to have them removed </s>
<s> in most cases disputes with administrators should be resolved with the normal dispute resolution process </s>
<s> if the dispute reflects seriously on a user administrative capacity blatant misuse of administrative tools gross or persistent misjudgement or conduct issues or dialog fails then the following steps are available </s>
<s> some administrators place themselves open to recall whereby they pledge to voluntarily step down if a certain number of editors in good standing request so </s>
<s> the specific criteria are set by each administrator for themselves and is usually detailed in their userspace </s>
<s> the process is entirely voluntary and administrators may change their criteria at any time or decline to adhere to previously made recall pledges </s>
<s> if an administrator steps down as a result of a recall he or she then requests removal at m steward </s>
<s> misuse of administrator access or behavior that is incompatible with adminship may result in an involuntary request for comment on administrator conduct </s>
<s> administrators who fail to satisfactorily respond to community feedback are likely to become the subject of an arbitration committee review see below </s>
<s> this is an involuntary process </s>
<s> generally the arbitration committee requires that other steps of dispute resolution should be tried before it intervenes in a dispute </s>
<s> however if the matter is serious enough the arbitration committee may intervene without a request for comment on administrator conduct or other steps </s>
<s> remedies that may be imposed at the discretion of the committee include warnings admonishments restrictions or a summary removal of administrator privileges </s>
<s> an autonomous community is the first-level political division of the kingdom of spain established in accordance with the current spanish constitution num </s>
<s> the second article of the constitution recognizes the rights of regions and nationalities to self-government and declares the indissoluble unity of the spanish nation </s>
<s> political power in spain is organized as a central government with devolved power for num autonomous communities </s>
<s> these regional governments are responsible of the administration of schools universities health social services culture urban and rural development and in some cases policing </s>
<s> there are also num autonomous cities </s>
<s> in all under the system of autonomies estado de las as spain has been quoted to be remarkable for the extent of the powers peacefully devolved over the past num years and an extraordinarily decentralised country with the central government accounting for just num of public spending the regional governments num the local councils num and the social-security system the rest </s>
<s> upon the ratification of its new constitution in num spain created a system of regional autonomy known as the state of the autonomies </s>
<s> the second article of the constitution grants the right of self-government to the regions and nationalities that integrate into the spanish nation </s>
<s> in the exercise of the right to self-government recognized in that article autonomy was to be granted to </s>
<s> as such the province which is also a territorial local entity recognized by the constitution serves as the framework from which the autonomous communities were to be created </s>
<s> however the constitution allows exceptions to the above namely that the spanish parliament reserves the right to </s>
<s> once an autonomous community had been constituted the num article of the constitution prohibits the federation or union of two or more autonomous communities </s>
<s> between num and num all the regions in spain had been constituted as autonomous communities in num the process was closed when the autonomous status of ceuta and melilla was passed </s>
<s> in total num autonomous communities and num autonomous cities were created </s>
<s> as a general rule the communities that were granted its autonomy through the fast process have more competences and higher levels of autonomy </s>
<s> these competences and autonomy rights are not defined in a closed list these can change over time </s>
<s> the basic institutional law of the autonomous community is the statute of autonomy </s>
<s> the statutes of autonomy establish the name of the community according to its historical identity the limits of their territories the name and organization of the institutions of government and the rights they enjoy according the constitution </s>
<s> besides andalusia catalonia the basque country and galicia which identified themselves as nationalities other communities have also taken that denomination in accordance to their historical regional identity such as the valencian community the canary islands the balearic islands and aragon </s>
<s> the autonomous communities have wide legislative and executive autonomy with their own parliaments and regional governments </s>
<s> the distribution of powers may be different for every community as laid out in their statutes of autonomy </s>
<s> there used to be a clear de facto distinction between so called historic communities basque country catalonia galicia andalusia and the rest </s>
<s> the historic ones initially received more functions including the ability of the regional presidents to choose the timing of the regional elections as long as they happen no more than four years apart </s>
<s> as another example the basque country navarre and catalonia have full-range police forces of their own ertzaintza in the basque country a foral in navarre and mossos in catalonia </s>
<s> other communities have a more limited force or none at all like the a noma andaluza in andalusia or the bescam in madrid </s>
<s> however the recent amendments made to their respective statute of autonomy by a series of ordinary autonomous communities such as the valencian community or aragon have quite diluted this original de facto distinction </s>
<s> autonomous communities are integrated by provinces provincias which serve as the territorial building blocks for the former </s>
<s> in turn provinces are integrated by municipalities municipios </s>
<s> the existence of these two subdivisions is guaranteed and protected by the constitution not necessarily by the statutes of autonomy themselves </s>
<s> municipalities are granted autonomy to manage their internal affairs and provinces are the territorial divisions designed to carry out the activities of the state </s>
<s> the current fifty-province structure is with minor on the one created in num by javier de burgos </s>
<s> the communities of asturias cantabria la rioja the balearic islands madrid murcia and navarre having been granted autonomy as single-provinces for historical reasons are counted as provinces as well </s>
<s> centralism nationalism and separatism played an important role in the spanish transition to democracy </s>
<s> for fear that separatism would lead to instability and a dictatorial backlash a compromise was struck among the moderate political parties taking part in the drafting of the spanish constitution of num </s>
<s> the aim was to appease separatist forces and so disarm the extreme right </s>
<s> a highly decentralized state was established compared to both the previous centralist francoist regime and the most modern territorial arrangements in western european nations </s>
<s> in this regard the current spanish estado de las as is often dubbed as one of the most decentralized states in europe </s>
<s> the constitution classified the autonomous communities to be created into two groups </s>
<s> each group had a different route to accede to autonomy and was to be granted a different level of power and responsibility </s>
<s> catalonia the basque country and galicia were designated historic nationalities and granted autonomy through a rapid and simplified process </s>
<s> these three regions had voted on and approved a statute of autonomy in the past </s>
<s> while the constitution was still being drafted there was a popular outcry in andalusia for its own right to autonomy with over a million and a half people demonstrating in the streets on num december num which led the creation of a special quicker process for autonomy for that region although it was not originally considered a historical nationality </s>
<s> eventually all regions could be granted autonomy if they complied with the requirements set forth in the constitution and if their people wished to do so and four additional communities self-identified as nationalities as well as the four already mentioned </s>
<s> between num and num the majority of the regions were constituted as autonomous communities in accordance with the num or num articles of the constitution </s>
<s> nonetheless the case of the province of madrid was exceptional </s>
<s> since it was not a province with a separate historical regional identity but was part of the cultural region of castile it was considered a natural province that would compose the soon-to-be community of castile-la mancha </s>
<s> during the process that led to the autonomy of this region the old rivalry between toledo and madrid resurfaced as capital of spain madrid was to enjoy a degree of self-government whereas castilians demanded absolute equality amongst the constituent provinces of the community and thus excluded madrid from their project of self-government </s>
<s> other alternatives included the incorporation of madrid to the community of castile and n the historical region of old castile or its controversial constitution as something similar to a federal district or territory emulating mexico city or washington finally they opted for the creation of a single-province autonomous community however for want of a historical regional identity madrid was granted autonomy in the nation interest through the prerogatives of the num article </s>
<s> the basque country and navarre were also exceptional cases </s>
<s> while the basque country was granted autonomy through the rapid process granted to the nationalities it also retained the economic and fiscal autonomy it had enjoyed through the fueros or charters </s>
<s> navarra was granted autonomy through the update and improvement of the medieval charters </s>
<s> as such it is the only region that does not have a statute of autonomy per se instead autonomy was via a law of reintegration and improvement of the chartered regime </s>
<s> in theory navarre is the only first-level political division that is not an autonomous community but a chartered community but in practice except for the fiscal autonomy it enjoys along with the basque country it is administratively constituted as any other autonomous community and is represented in the spanish parliament like the rest </s>
<s> although the constitution forbids the federation or union of autonomous communities an addendum or transitional provision to the constitution makes an exclusion whereby navarre could join the basque country if the people chose to do so </s>
<s> leonese administrations proposed a leonese autonomous community for the province of n as a continuity of the leonese region comprising n salamanca and zamora provinces created in num </s>
<s> the kingdom of n and n provincial de n leonese provincial government and many municipalities including n and ponferrada supported this model some of them supported the leonese autonomous community as a historical nationality </s>
<s> the tribunal constitucional of spain rejected the leonese proposal in num and n was joined with castile to create the castile and n autonomous community only supported by num of leonese municipalities </s>
<s> ceuta and melilla are called ciudades nomas autonomous cities </s>
<s> their status is in between regular cities and autonomous communities on the one side ceuta and melilla autonomous parliaments can not enact autonomous laws but on the other side they can enact regulations to execute laws which are greater regulatory powers than those of regular city councils </s>
<s> nowadays the perejil island is considered a neutral territory between spain and morocco but it is dominated by spain de facto as a fourth plaza de today the n island is part of the municipality of a in the homonymous province </s>
<s> alan mathison turing obe frs num june num num june num was an english mathematician logician cryptanalyst and computer scientist </s>
<s> he was highly influential in the development of computer science providing a formalization of the concepts of algorithm and computation with the turing machine which played a significant role in the creation of the modern computer </s>
<s> during the second world war turing worked for the government code and cypher school at bletchley park britain codebreaking center </s>
<s> for a time he was head of hut num the section responsible for german naval cryptanalysis </s>
<s> he devised a number of techniques for breaking german ciphers including the method of the bombe an electromechanical machine that could find settings for the enigma machine </s>
<s> after the war he worked at the national physical laboratory where he created one of the first designs for a stored-program computer the ace </s>
<s> towards the end of his life turing became interested in mathematical biology </s>
<s> he wrote a paper on the chemical basis of morphogenesis and he predicted oscillating chemical reactions such as the zhabotinsky reaction which were first observed in the num </s>
<s> turing homosexuality resulted in a criminal prosecution in num because homosexual acts were illegal in the united kingdom at that time and he accepted treatment with female hormones chemical castration as an alternative to prison </s>
<s> he died in num several weeks before his num birthday from cyanide poisoning </s>
<s> an inquest determined it was suicide his mother and some others believed his death was accidental </s>
<s> on num september num following an internet campaign british prime minister gordon brown made an official public apology on behalf of the british government for the way in which turing was treated after the war </s>
<s> alan turing was conceived in india </s>
<s> his father julius mathison turing was a member of the indian civil service </s>
<s> julius and wife ethel sara stoney num num daughter of edward waller stoney chief engineer of the madras railways wanted alan to be brought up in england so they returned to maida vale london where alan turing was born on num june num as recorded by a blue plaque on the outside of the building later the colonnade hotel </s>
<s> he had an elder brother john </s>
<s> his father civil service commission was still active and during turing childhood years his parents traveled between hastings england and india leaving their two sons to stay with a retired army couple </s>
<s> very early in life turing showed signs of the genius he was to later prominently display </s>
<s> his parents enrolled him at st michael a day school at num charles road st leonards on sea at the age of six </s>
<s> the headmistress recognized his talent early on as did many of his subsequent educators </s>
<s> in num at the age of num he went on to sherborne school a famous independent school in the market town of sherborne in dorset </s>
<s> his first day of term coincided with the general strike in britain but so determined was he to attend his first day that he rode his bicycle unaccompanied more than num m from southampton to school stopping overnight at an inn </s>
<s> turing natural inclination toward mathematics and science did not earn him respect with some of the teachers at sherborne whose definition of education placed more emphasis on the classics </s>
<s> his headmaster wrote to his parents i hope he will not fall between two stools </s>
<s> if he is to stay at public school he must aim at becoming educated </s>
<s> if he is to be solely a scientific specialist he is wasting his time at a public school </s>
<s> despite this turing continued to show remarkable ability in the studies he loved solving advanced problems in num without having even studied elementary calculus </s>
<s> in num aged num turing encountered albert einstein work not only did he grasp it but he extrapolated einstein questioning of newton laws of motion from a text in which this was never made explicit </s>
<s> turing hopes and ambitions at school were raised by the close friendship he developed with a slightly older fellow student christopher morcom who was turing first love interest </s>
<s> morcom died suddenly only a few weeks into their last term at sherborne from complications of bovine tuberculosis contracted after drinking infected cow milk as a boy </s>
<s> turing religious faith was shattered and he became an atheist </s>
<s> he adopted the conviction that all phenomena including the workings of the human brain must be materialistic but he still believed in the survival of the spirit after death </s>
<s> after sherborne turing went to study at king college cambridge </s>
<s> he was an undergraduate there from num to num graduating with first-class honors in mathematics and in num was elected a fellow at king on the strength of a dissertation on the central limit theorem </s>
<s> in his momentous paper on computable numbers with an application to the entscheidungsproblem turing reformulated kurt del num results on the limits of proof and computation replacing del universal arithmetic-based formal language with what became known as turing machines formal and simple devices </s>
<s> he proved that some such machine would be capable of performing any conceivable mathematical computation if it were representable as an algorithm </s>
<s> he went on to prove that there was no solution to the entscheidungsproblem by first showing that the halting problem for turing machines is undecidable it is not possible to decide in general algorithmically whether a given turing machine will ever halt </s>
<s> while his proof was published subsequent to alonzo church equivalent proof in respect to his lambda calculus turing was unaware of church work at the time </s>
<s> in his memoirs turing wrote that he was disappointed about the reception of this num paper and that only two people had reacted these being heinrich scholz and richard bevan braithwaite </s>
<s> turing approach is considerably more accessible and intuitive </s>
<s> it was also novel in its notion of a universal turing machine the idea that such a machine could perform the tasks of any other machine </s>
<s> or in other words is provably capable of computing anything that is computable </s>
<s> turing machines are to this day a central object of study in theory of computation the simplest example being a num state num symbol turing machine discovered by stephen wolfram </s>
<s> the paper also introduces the notion of definable numbers </s>
<s> from september num to july num he spent most of his time at the institute for advanced study princeton new jersey studying under alonzo church </s>
<s> as well as his pure mathematical work he studied cryptology and also built three of four stages of an electro-mechanical binary multiplier </s>
<s> in june num he obtained his from princeton his dissertation introduced the notion of relative computing where turing machines are augmented with so-called oracles allowing a study of problems that can not be solved by a turing machine </s>
<s> back in cambridge he attended lectures by ludwig wittgenstein about the foundations of mathematics </s>
<s> the two argued and disagreed with turing defending formalism and wittgenstein arguing that mathematics does not discover any absolute truths but rather invents them </s>
<s> he also started to work part-time with the government code and cypher school gccs </s>
<s> during the second world war turing was a main participant in the efforts at bletchley park to break german ciphers </s>
<s> building on cryptanalysis work carried out in poland by marian rejewski jerzy ycki and henryk zygalski from cipher bureau before the war he contributed several insights into breaking both the enigma machine and the lorenz sz a teleprinter teletype cipher attachment codenamed tunny by the british and was for a time head of hut num the section responsible for reading german naval signals </s>
<s> from september num turing had been working part-time notionally for the british foreign office with the government code and cypher school gccs the british code breaking organization </s>
<s> he worked on the problem of the german enigma machine and collaborated with dilly knox a senior gccs codebreaker </s>
<s> on num september num the day after the uk declared war on germany turing reported to bletchley park the wartime station of gccs </s>
<s> in num turing was awarded the obe for his wartime services but his work remained secret for many years </s>
<s> turing had something of a reputation for eccentricity at bletchley park </s>
<s> jack good a cryptanalyst who worked with him is quoted by ronald lewin as having said of turing in the first week of june each year he would get a bad attack of hay fever and he would cycle to the office wearing a service gas mask to keep the pollen off </s>
<s> his bicycle had a fault the chain would come off at regular intervals </s>
<s> instead of having it mended he would count the number of times the pedals went round and would get off the bicycle in time to adjust the chain by hand </s>
<s> another of his eccentricities is that he chained his mug to the radiator pipes to prevent it being stolen </s>
<s> while working at bletchley turing a talented long-distance runner occasionally ran the num m to london when he was needed for high-level meetings </s>
<s> within weeks of arriving at bletchley park turing had specified an electromechanical machine which could help break enigma faster than bomba from num the bombe named after and building upon the original polish-designed bomba </s>
<s> the bombe with an enhancement suggested by mathematician gordon welchman became one of the primary tools and the major automated one used to attack enigma-protected message traffic </s>
<s> jack good opined turing most important contribution i think was of part of the design of the bombe the cryptanalytic machine </s>
<s> he had the idea that you could use in effect a theorem in logic which sounds to the untrained ear rather absurd namely that from a contradiction you can deduce everything </s>
<s> the bombe searched for possibly correct settings used for an enigma message rotor order rotor settings and used a suitable crib a fragment of probable plaintext </s>
<s> for each possible setting of the rotors which had of the order of num states or num for the four-rotor u-boat variant the bombe performed a chain of logical deductions based on the crib implemented electrically </s>
<s> the bombe detected when a contradiction had occurred and ruled out that setting moving onto the next </s>
<s> most of the possible settings would cause contradictions and be discarded leaving only a few to be investigated in detail </s>
<s> turing bombe was first installed on num march num </s>
<s> more than two hundred bombes were in operation by the end of the war </s>
<s> turing decided to tackle the particularly difficult problem of german naval enigma because no one else was doing anything about it and i could have it to myself </s>
<s> in december num turing solved the essential part of the naval indicator system which was more complex than the indicator systems used by the other services </s>
<s> the same night that he solved the naval indicator system he conceived the idea of banburismus a sequential statistical technique what abraham wald later called sequential analysis to assist in breaking naval enigma though i was not sure that it would work in practice and was not in fact sure until some days had actually broken </s>
<s> for this he invented a measure of weight of evidence that he called the ban </s>
<s> banburismus could rule out certain orders of the enigma rotors substantially reducing the time needed to test settings on the bombes </s>
<s> in num turing proposed marriage to hut num co-worker joan clarke a fellow mathematician but their engagement was short-lived </s>
<s> after admitting his homosexuality to his e who was reportedly unfazed by the revelation turing decided that he could not go through with the marriage </s>
<s> in july num turing devised a technique termed turingery or jokingly turingismus for use against the lorenz cipher messages produced by the germans new geheimschreiber machine secret writer </s>
<s> this was codenamed tunny at bletchley park </s>
<s> he also introduced the tunny team to tommy flowers who under the guidance of max newman went on to build the colossus computer the world first programmable digital electronic computer which replaced a simpler prior machine the heath robinson and whose superior speed allowed the brute-force decryption techniques to be applied usefully to the daily changing cyphers </s>
<s> a frequent misconception is that turing was a key figure in the design of colossus this was not the case </s>
<s> turing traveled to the united states in november num and worked with navy cryptanalysts on naval enigma and bombe construction in washington and assisted at bell labs with the development of secure speech devices </s>
<s> he returned to bletchley park in march num </s>
<s> during his absence hugh alexander had officially assumed the position of head of hut num although alexander had been de facto head for some turing having little interest in the day-to-day running of the section </s>
<s> turing became a general consultant for cryptanalysis at bletchley park </s>
<s> alexander wrote as follows about his contribution there should be no question in anyone mind that turing work was the biggest factor in hut num success </s>
<s> in the early days he was the only cryptographer who thought the problem worth tackling and not only was he primarily responsible for the main theoretical work within the hut but he also shared with welchman and keen the chief credit for the invention of the bombe </s>
<s> it is always difficult to say that anyone is absolutely indispensable but if anyone was indispensable to hut num it was turing </s>
<s> the pioneer work always tends to be forgotten when experience and routine later make everything seem easy and many of us in hut num felt that the magnitude of turing contribution was never fully realized by the outside world </s>
<s> in the latter part of the war he moved to work at hanslope park where he further developed his knowledge of electronics with the assistance of engineer donald bayley </s>
<s> together they undertook the design and construction of a portable secure voice communications machine codenamed delilah </s>
<s> it was intended for different applications lacking capability for use with long-distance radio transmissions and in any case delilah was completed too late to be used during the war </s>
<s> though turing demonstrated it to officials by a recording of a winston churchill speech delilah was not adopted for use </s>
<s> turing also consulted with bell labs on the development of sigsaly a secure voice system that was used in the later years of the war </s>
<s> from num to num turing lived in church street hampton while he worked on the design of the ace automatic computing engine at the national physical laboratory </s>
<s> he presented a paper on num february num which was the first detailed design of a stored-program computer </s>
<s> although ace was a feasible design the secrecy surrounding the wartime work at bletchley park led to delays in starting the project and he became disillusioned </s>
<s> in late num he returned to cambridge for a sabbatical year </s>
<s> while he was at cambridge the pilot ace was built in his absence </s>
<s> it executed its first program on num may num </s>
<s> in num he was appointed reader in the mathematics department at manchester </s>
<s> in num he became deputy director of the computing laboratory at the university of manchester and worked on software for one of the earliest stored-program the manchester mark num </s>
<s> during this time he continued to do more abstract work and in computing machinery and intelligence mind october num turing addressed the problem of artificial intelligence and proposed an experiment which became known as the turing test an attempt to define a standard for a machine to be called intelligent </s>
<s> the idea was that a computer could be said to think if a human interrogator could not tell it apart through conversation from a human being </s>
<s> in the paper turing suggested that rather than building a program to simulate the adult mind it would be better rather to produce a simpler one to simulate a child mind and then to subject it to a course of education </s>
<s> a reversed form of the turing test is widely used on the internet the captcha test is intended to determine whether the user is a human or a computer </s>
<s> in num turing working with his former undergraduate colleague champernowne began writing a chess program for a computer that did not yet exist </s>
<s> in num lacking a computer powerful enough to execute the program turing played a game in which he simulated the computer taking about half an hour per move </s>
<s> the game was recorded </s>
<s> the program lost to turing colleague alick glennie although it is said that it won a game against champernowne wife </s>
<s> his turing test was a significant and characteristically provocative and lasting contribution to the debate regarding artificial intelligence which continues after more than half a century </s>
<s> he also invented the lu decomposition method used today for solving an equations matrix in num </s>
<s> turing worked from num until his death in num on mathematical biology specifically morphogenesis </s>
<s> he published one paper on the subject called the chemical basis of morphogenesis in num putting forth the turing hypothesis of pattern formation </s>
<s> his central interest in the field was understanding fibonacci phyllotaxis the existence of fibonacci numbers in plant structures </s>
<s> he used diffusion equations which are central to the field of pattern formation </s>
<s> later papers went unpublished until num when collected works of turing was published </s>
<s> his contribution is considered a seminal piece of work in this field </s>
<s> in january num turing met arnold murray outside a cinema in manchester </s>
<s> after a lunch date turing invited murray to spend the weekend with him at his house an invitation which murray accepted although he did not show up </s>
<s> the pair met again in manchester the following monday when murray agreed to accompany turing to the latter house </s>
<s> a few weeks later murray visited turing house again and apparently spent the night there </s>
<s> after murray helped an accomplice to break into his house turing reported the crime to the police </s>
<s> during the investigation turing acknowledged a sexual relationship with murray </s>
<s> homosexual acts were illegal in the united kingdom at that time and so both were charged with gross indecency under section num of the criminal law amendment act num the same crime for which oscar wilde had been convicted more than fifty years earlier </s>
<s> turing was given a choice between imprisonment or probation conditional on his agreement to undergo hormonal treatment designed to reduce libido </s>
<s> he accepted chemical castration via estrogen hormone injections </s>
<s> turing conviction led to the removal of his security clearance and barred him from continuing with his cryptographic consultancy for gchq </s>
<s> his british passport was not revoked though he was denied entry to the united states after his conviction </s>
<s> at the time there was acute public anxiety about spies and homosexual entrapment by soviet agents because of the recent exposure of the first two members of the cambridge five guy burgess and donald maclean as kgb double agents </s>
<s> turing was never accused of espionage but as with all who had worked at bletchley park was prevented from discussing his war work </s>
<s> on num june num turing cleaner found him dead he had died the previous day </s>
<s> a post-mortem examination established that the cause of death was cyanide poisoning </s>
<s> when his body was discovered an apple lay half-eaten beside his bed and although the apple was not tested for cyanide it is speculated that this was the means by which a fatal dose was delivered </s>
<s> an inquest determined that he had committed suicide and he was cremated at woking crematorium on num june num </s>
<s> turing mother argued strenuously that the ingestion was accidental caused by her son careless storage of laboratory chemicals </s>
<s> biographer andrew hodges suggests that turing may have killed himself in an ambiguous way quite deliberately to give his mother some plausible deniability </s>
<s> others suggest that turing was re-enacting a scene from the num film snow white his favorite fairy tale pointing out that he took an especially keen pleasure in the scene where the wicked witch immerses her apple in the poisonous brew </s>
<s> since num the turing award has been given annually by the association for computing machinery to a person for technical contributions to the computing community </s>
<s> it is widely considered to be the computing world highest honor equivalent to the nobel prize </s>
<s> breaking the code is a num play by hugh whitemore about alan turing </s>
<s> the play ran in london west end beginning in november num and on broadway from num november num to num april num </s>
<s> there was also a num bbc television production </s>
<s> in all cases derek jacobi played turing </s>
<s> the broadway production was nominated for three tony awards including best actor in a play best featured actor in a play and best direction of a play and for two drama desk awards for best actor and best featured actor </s>
<s> turing was one of four mathematicians examined in the num bbc documentary entitled dangerous knowledge </s>
<s> on num june num on what would have been turing num birthday andrew hodges his biographer unveiled an official english heritage blue plaque at his birthplace and childhood home in warrington crescent london later the colonnade hotel </s>
<s> to mark the num anniversary of his death a memorial plaque was unveiled on num june num at his former residence hollymeade in wilmslow cheshire </s>
<s> on num march num saint vincent and the grenadines issued a set of stamps to celebrate the greatest achievements of the twentieth century one of which carries a recognisable portrait of turing against a background of repeated num and num and is captioned num alan turing theory of digital computing </s>
<s> on num october num a bronze statue of alan turing sculpted by john w mills was unveiled at the university of surrey in guildford marking the num anniversary of turing death it portrays him carrying his books across the campus </s>
<s> in num boston pride named turing their honorary grand marshal </s>
<s> the princeton alumni weekly named turing the second most significant alumnus in the history of princeton university second only to president james madison </s>
<s> a life-size statue of turing was unveiled on num june num at bletchley park </s>
<s> built from approximately half a million pieces of welsh slate it was sculpted by stephen kettle having been commissioned by the late american billionaire sidney frank </s>
<s> turing has been honored in various ways in manchester the city where he worked towards the end of his life </s>
<s> in num a stretch of the a6010 road the manchester city intermediate ring road was named alan turing way </s>
<s> a bridge carrying this road was widened and carries the name alan turing bridge </s>
<s> a statue of turing was unveiled in manchester on num june num </s>
<s> it is in sackville park between the university of manchester building on whitworth street and the canal street gay village </s>
<s> the memorial statue depicts the father of computer science sitting on a bench at a central position in the park </s>
<s> the statue was unveiled on turing birthday </s>
<s> turing is shown holding an a symbol classically used to represent forbidden love the object that inspired isaac newton theory of gravitation and the means of turing own death </s>
<s> the cast bronze bench carries in relief the text alan mathison turing num num and the motto founder of computer science as it would appear if encoded by an enigma machine iekyf romsi adxuo kvkzc gubj </s>
<s> a plinth at the statue feet says father of computer science mathematician logician wartime codebreaker victim of prejudice </s>
<s> there is also a bertrand russell quotation saying mathematics rightly viewed possesses not only truth but supreme a beauty cold and austere like that of sculpture </s>
<s> the sculptor buried his old amstrad computer which was an early popular home computer under the plinth as a tribute to the godfather of all modern computers </s>
<s> in num time magazine named turing as one of the num most important people of the num century for his role in the creation of the modern computer and stated the fact remains that everyone who taps at a keyboard opening a spreadsheet or a word-processing program is working on an incarnation of a turing machine </s>
<s> in num turing was ranked twenty-first on the bbc nationwide poll of the num greatest britons </s>
<s> the logo of apple computer is often erroneously referred to as a tribute to alan turing with the bite mark a reference to his method of suicide </s>
<s> both the designer of the logo and the company deny that there is any homage to turing in the design of the logo </s>
<s> in num jade esteban estrada portrayed turing in the solo musical icons the lesbian and gay history of the world vol </s>
<s> num </s>
<s> turing is mentioned several times in the dlc for the num games bioshock num he is mentioned several times by the voice actor who portrays porter </s>
<s> there is also a telegram in porter office requesting he come to london and work with turing </s>
<s> turing is featured in the neal stephenson novel cryptonomicon </s>
<s> in february num turing papers from the second world war were bought for the nation with an num bid by the national heritage memorial fund allowing them to stay at bletchley park </s>
<s> in august num john graham-cumming started a petition urging the british government to posthumously apologise to alan turing for prosecuting him as a homosexual </s>
<s> the petition received thousands of signatures </s>
<s> prime minister gordon brown acknowledged the petition releasing a statement on num september num apologising and describing turing treatment as appalling </s>
<s> thousands of people have come together to demand justice for alan turing and recognition of the appalling way he was treated </s>
<s> while turing was dealt with under the law of the time and we ca put the clock back his treatment was of course utterly unfair and i am pleased to have the chance to say how deeply sorry i and we all are for what happened to him so on behalf of the british government and all those who live freely thanks to alan work i am very proud to say we sorry you deserved so much better </s>
<s> a celebration of turing life and achievements arranged by the british logic colloquium and the british society for the history of mathematics was held on num june num </s>
<s> to mark the num anniversary of turing birth the turing centenary advisory committee working with manchester university faculty members and a broad spectrum of people from cambridge and bletchley park are planning a year of international events in num </s>
<s> events are scheduled in many countries around the world including cambodia brazil and china </s>
<s> the keystone events will be a three-day conference in manchester in june examining turing mathematical and code-breaking achievements and a turing centenary conference in cambridge organised by king college and the association computability in europe </s>
<s> alanis nadine morissette born june num num is a canadian-american singer-songwriter guitarist record producer and actress </s>
<s> she has won num juno awards and seven grammy awards and has been nominated for two golden globe award as well as preliminary academy award nominee </s>
<s> morissette began her career in canada and as a teenager recorded two dance-pop albums alanis and now is the time under mca records canada </s>
<s> her worldwide debut album was the rock-influenced jagged little pill released in num which remains the best-selling debut album by a female artist in the and the highest selling debut album worldwide selling more than num million units globally </s>
<s> her following album supposed former infatuation junkie was released in num and was a success as well </s>
<s> morissette took up producing duties for her subsequent albums which include under rug swept so-called chaos and flavors of entanglement </s>
<s> morissette has sold more than num million albums worldwide </s>
<s> in february num morissette became a naturalized citizen of the united states while maintaining her canadian citizenship </s>
<s> morissette was born in ottawa ontario canada the daughter of georgia mary ann e feuerstein a hungarian-born teacher and alan richard morissette a french-canadian high school principal </s>
<s> she has a twin brother wade morissette also a musician who was born num minutes after her </s>
<s> morissette parents were devout catholics </s>
<s> in num mca records canada released morissette debut album alanis in canada only </s>
<s> morissette co-wrote every track on the album with its producer leslie howe </s>
<s> by the time it was released she had dropped her stage name and was credited simply as alanis </s>
<s> the dance-pop album went platinum and its first single too hot reached the top twenty on the rpm singles chart </s>
<s> subsequent singles walk away and feel your love reached the top forty </s>
<s> morissette popularity style of music and appearance particularly that of her hair led her to become known as the debbie gibson of canada comparisons to tiffany were also common </s>
<s> during the same period she was a concert opening act for rapper vanilla ice </s>
<s> morissette was nominated for three num juno awards most promising female vocalist of the year which she won single of the year and best dance recording both for too hot </s>
<s> in num she released her second album now is the time a ballad-driven record that featured less glitzy production than alanis and contained more thoughtful lyrics </s>
<s> morissette wrote the songs with the album producer leslie howe and serge </s>
<s> she said of the album people could go boo hiss hiss this girl like another tiffany or whatever </s>
<s> but the way i look at it people will like your next album if it a suck-ass one </s>
<s> as with alanis now is the time was released only in canada and produced three top forty an emotion away the minor adult contemporary hit no apologies and change is never a waste of time </s>
<s> it was a commercial failure however selling only a little more than half the copies of her first album </s>
<s> with her two-album deal with mca records canada complete morissette was left without a major label contract </s>
<s> in num after graduating from high school morissette moved from ottawa to toronto </s>
<s> eventually she met producer and songwriter glen ballard </s>
<s> the two wrote and recorded morissette first internationally released album jagged little pill and by the spring of num she had signed a deal with maverick records </s>
<s> maverick records released jagged little pill internationally in num </s>
<s> the album was expected only to sell enough for morissette to make a follow-up but the situation changed quickly when a dj from kroq an influential los angeles modern rock radio station began playing you oughta know the album first single </s>
<s> the song instantly garnered attention for its scathing explicit lyrics and a subsequent music video went into heavy rotation on mtv and muchmusic </s>
<s> after the success of you oughta know the album other hit singles helped send jagged little pill to the top of the charts </s>
<s> all i really want and hand in my pocket followed but the fourth single ironic became morissette biggest hit </s>
<s> you learn and head over feet the fifth and sixth singles respectively kept jagged little pill in the top twenty on the billboard num albums chart for more than a year </s>
<s> according to the riaa jagged little pill is the best-selling international debut album by a female artist with more than num million copies sold in the it sold num million worldwide making it the third biggest selling album by a female artist and the biggest selling debut album though technically it is alanis international debut not her first album of all time </s>
<s> morissette popularity grew significantly in canada where the album was certified twelve times platinum and produced four rpm chart-toppers hand in my pocket ironic you learn and head over feet </s>
<s> the album was also a bestseller in australia and the united kingdom </s>
<s> morissette success with jagged little pill was credited with leading to the introduction of female singers such as shakira tracy bonham meredith brooks patti rothberg and in the early num pink and fellow canadian avril lavigne </s>
<s> she was criticized for collaborating with producer and supposed image-maker ballard and her previous albums also proved a hindrance for her respectability </s>
<s> morissette and the album won six juno awards in num album of the year single of the year you oughta know female vocalist of the year songwriter of the year and best rock album </s>
<s> at the num grammy awards she won best female rock vocal performance best rock song both for you oughta know best rock album and album of the year </s>
<s> later in num morissette embarked on an eighteen-month world tour in support of jagged little pill beginning in small clubs and ending in large venues </s>
<s> taylor hawkins who later joined the foo fighters was the tour drummer </s>
<s> ironic was nominated for two num grammy record of the year and best music video short and won single of the year at the num juno awards where morissette also won songwriter of the year and the international achievement award </s>
<s> the video jagged little pill live which was co-directed by morissette and chronicled the bulk of her tour won a num grammy award for best music video long form </s>
<s> following the stressful tour morissette started practicing iyengar yoga for balancing and after the last december num show she headed to india for six weeks accompanied by her mother two aunts and two female friends </s>
<s> morissette was featured as a guest vocalist on ringo starr cover of drift away on his num album vertical man and on the songs do drink the water and spoon on the dave matthews band album before these crowded streets </s>
<s> she recorded the song uninvited for the soundtrack to the num film city of angels </s>
<s> although the track was never commercially released as a single it received widespread radio airplay in the </s>
<s> at the num grammy awards it won in the categories of best rock song and best female rock vocal performance and was nominated for best song written for a motion picture television or other visual media </s>
<s> later in num morissette released her fourth album supposed former infatuation junkie which she wrote and produced with glen ballard </s>
<s> privately the label hoped to sell a million copies of the album on initial release instead it debuted at number one on the billboard num chart with first-week sales of a record at the time for the highest first-week sales of an album by a female artist </s>
<s> the wordy personal lyrics on supposed former infatuation junkie alienated many fans and after the album sold considerably less than jagged little pill many labeled it an example of the sophomore jinx </s>
<s> however it received positive reviews including a four-star review from rolling stone </s>
<s> in canada it won the juno award for best album and was certified four times platinum </s>
<s> thank u the album only major international hit single was nominated for the num grammy award for best female pop vocal performance the music video which featured morissette nude generated mild controversy </s>
<s> morissette herself directed the videos for unsent and so pure which won respectively the muchmusic video award for best director and the juno award for video of the year </s>
<s> the so pure video features actor dash mihok with whom morissette was in a relationship at the time </s>
<s> morissette contributed vocals to mercy hope innocence and faith four tracks on jonathan elias project the prayer cycle which was released in num </s>
<s> the same year she released the live acoustic album alanis unplugged which was recorded during her appearance on the television show mtv unplugged </s>
<s> it featured tracks from her previous two albums alongside four new songs including king of pain a cover of the police song and no pressure over cappuccino which morissette wrote with her main guitar player nick lashley </s>
<s> the recording of the supposed former infatuation junkie track that i would be good released as a single became a minor hit on hot adult contemporary radio in america </s>
<s> also in num morissette released a live version of her song are you still mad on the charity album live in the x lounge ii </s>
<s> for her live rendition of so pure at woodstock num she was nominated for best female rock vocal performance at the num grammy awards </s>
<s> during summer num alanis toured with tori amos on the num and a half weeks tour in support of amos album to venus and back </s>
<s> in num morissette was featured with stephanie mckay on the tricky song excess which is on his album blowback </s>
<s> morissette released her fifth studio album under rug swept in february num </s>
<s> for the first time in her career she took on the role of sole writer and producer of an album </s>
<s> her band comprising joel shearer nick lashley chris chaney and gary novak played the majority of the instruments additional contributions came from eric avery dean deleo flea and meshell ndegeocello </s>
<s> shortly after recording the album morissette essentially fired this whole band by proposing a huge pay cut at least num for most members while offering the drummer gary novak a slightly smaller pay cut but an increase in work and responsibility </s>
<s> this effectively ended the band as it was and an entirely new band was hired shortly after featuring jason orme zac rae david levita and blair sinta who have been with her since </s>
<s> under rug swept debuted at number one on the billboard num chart eventually going platinum in canada and selling one million copies in the </s>
<s> it produced the hit single hands clean which topped the canadian singles chart and received substantial radio play for her work on hands clean and so unsexy morissette won a juno award for producer of the year </s>
<s> a second single precious illusions was released but it did not garner significant success outside canada or hot ac radio </s>
<s> later in num morissette released the combination package feast on scraps which includes a dvd of live concert and backstage documentary footage directed by her and a cd containing eight previously unreleased songs from the under rug swept recording sessions </s>
<s> preceded by the single simple together it sold roughly copies in the and was nominated for a juno award for music dvd of the year </s>
<s> morissette hosted the juno awards of num dressed in a bathrobe which she took off to reveal a flesh-colored bodysuit a response to the era of censorship in the caused by janet jackson breast-reveal incident during the super bowl xxxviii halftime show </s>
<s> morissette released her sixth studio album so-called chaos in may num </s>
<s> she wrote the songs on her own again and co-produced the album with tim thorney and pop music producer john shanks </s>
<s> the album debuted at number five on the billboard num chart to generally mixed critical reviews and it became morissette lowest seller in the </s>
<s> the lead single everything achieved major success on adult top num radio in america and was moderately popular elsewhere particularly in canada although it failed to reach the top forty on the hot num </s>
<s> because the first line of the song includes the word asshole american radio stations refused to play it and the single version was changed to include the word nightmare instead </s>
<s> two other singles out is through and eight easy steps fared considerably worse commercially than everything although a dance mix of eight easy steps was a club hit </s>
<s> morissette embarked on a summer tour with long-time friends and fellow canadians barenaked ladies working with the non-profit environmental organization reverb </s>
<s> to commemorate the tenth anniversary of jagged little pill morissette released a studio acoustic version jagged little pill acoustic in june num </s>
<s> the album was released exclusively through starbucks hear music retail concept through their coffee shops for a six-week run </s>
<s> the limited availability led to a dispute between maverick records and hmv north america who retaliated by removing morissette other albums from sale for the duration of starbucks exclusive six-week sale </s>
<s> as of november num jagged little pill acoustic had sold copies in the and a video for hand in my pocket received rotation on vh1 in america </s>
<s> the accompanying tour ran for two months in mid num with morissette playing small theater venues </s>
<s> during the same period morissette was inducted into canada walk of fame </s>
<s> morissette opened for the rolling stones for a few dates of their a bigger bang tour in the autumn of num </s>
<s> morissette released the greatest hits album alanis morissette the collection in late num </s>
<s> the lead single and only new track a cover of seal crazy was a adult top num and dance hit but it achieved only minimal chart success elsewhere </s>
<s> a limited edition of the collection features a dvd including a documentary with videos of two unreleased songs from morissette num ca not tour king of intimidation and ca not </s>
<s> a reworked version of ca not had also appeared on supposed former infatuation junkie </s>
<s> the dvd also includes a ninety-second clip of the unreleased video for the single joining you </s>
<s> as of november num the collection had sold copies in the according to soundscan </s>
<s> morissette contributed the song wunderkind to the soundtrack of the film the chronicles of narnia the lion the witch and the wardrobe and it was nominated for a golden globe award for best original song </s>
<s> alanis performed two songs with avril lavigne morissette ironic and lavigne losing grip </s>
<s> num marked the first year in morissette musical career without a single concert appearance showcasing her own songs with the exception of an appearance on the tonight show with jay leno in january when she performed wunderkind </s>
<s> on april num num morissette released a tongue-in-cheek cover of the black eyed peas selection my humps which she recorded in a slow mournful voice accompanied only by a piano </s>
<s> the accompanying youtube-hosted video in which she dances provocatively with a group of men and hits the ones who attempt to touch her lady lumps had received views on february num num </s>
<s> morissette did not take any interviews for a time to explain the song and it was theorized that she did it as an april fools day joke </s>
<s> black eyed peas vocalist stacy fergie ferguson responded by sending morissette a buttocks-shaped cake with an approving note </s>
<s> on the verge of the release of her latest album she finally elaborated on how the video came to be citing that she became very much emotionally loaded while recording her new songs one after the other and one day she wished she could do a simple song like my humps in a conversation with guy sigsworth and the joke just took a life of its own when they started working on it </s>
<s> morissette performed at a gig for the nightwatchman tom morello of rage against the machine and audioslave fame at the hotel in los angeles in april num </s>
<s> the following june she performed the star-spangled banner and o canada the american and canadian national anthems in game num of the stanley cup finals between the ottawa senators and the anaheim ducks in ottawa ontario </s>
<s> the nhl requires arenas to perform both the american and canadian national anthems at games involving teams from both countries </s>
<s> in early num morissette participated in a tour with matchbox twenty and mutemath as a special guest </s>
<s> morissette seventh studio album flavors of entanglement which was produced by guy sigsworth was released in mid num </s>
<s> she has stated that in late num she would embark on a north american headlining tour but in the meantime she would be promoting the album internationally by performing at shows and festivals and making television and radio appearances </s>
<s> the album first single was underneath a video for which was submitted to the num elevate film festival the purpose of which festival was to create documentaries music videos narratives and shorts regarding subjects to raise the level of human consciousness on the earth </s>
<s> on october num num morissette released the video for her latest single not as we </s>
<s> morissette left maverick records after all promotion for flavors was completed </s>
<s> recently morissette has contributed to num giant leap performing arrival with zap mama and she has released an acoustic version of her song still as part of a compilation from music for relief in support of the num haiti earthquake crisis </s>
<s> morissette has also recorded a cover of the num willie nelson and julio iglesias hit to all the girls i loved before re-written as to all the boys i loved before </s>
<s> nelson played rhythm guitar on the recording </s>
<s> in april num morissette released the song i remain which she wrote for the prince of persia the sands of time soundtrack </s>
<s> on may num num the season finale of american idol morissette performed a duet of her song you oughta know with runner up crystal bowersox </s>
<s> in late january num a song entitled professional torturer which morissette wrote and performed for the film in which she stars radio free albemuth surfaced through various outlets </s>
<s> in num morissette had her first stint as an actor twenty episodes of the children television show you ca do that on television </s>
<s> she appeared on stage with the orpheus musical theatre society in num and num </s>
<s> in num she appeared in the film just one of the girls starring corey haim which she described as horrible </s>
<s> in num morissette delved into acting again for the first time since num appearing as god in the kevin smith comedy dogma and contributing the song still to its soundtrack </s>
<s> she also appeared in the hit hbo comedies sex and the city and curb your enthusiasm appeared in the play the vagina monologues and had a brief role in the brazilian hit soap opera celebridade celebrity </s>
<s> in late num morissette appeared in the off-broadway play the exonerated as charlie jacobs a death row inmate freed after proof surfaced that she was innocent </s>
<s> in april num mtv news reported that morissette would reprise her role in the exonerated in london from may num until may num </s>
<s> she expanded her acting credentials with the july num release of the cole porter biographical film de-lovely in which she performed the song let do it let fall in love and had a brief role as an anonymous stage performer </s>
<s> in february num she made a guest appearance on the canadian television show degrassi the next generation with dogma co-star jason mewes and director kevin smith </s>
<s> in num she guest starred in an episode of lifetime lovespring international as a homeless woman named lucinda three episodes of fx playing a lesbian named poppy and the pittsburgh as herself </s>
<s> it was announced on morissette website that she will be starring in a film adaptation of philip dick novel radio free albemuth </s>
<s> morissette will play sylvia an ordinary woman in unexpected remission from lymphoma </s>
<s> morissette stated that she is a big fan of philip dick poetic and expansively imaginative books and that she feel s blessed to portray sylvia and to be part of this story being told in film </s>
<s> morissette has appeared in eight episodes of weeds playing audra kitson a no-nonsense obstetrician who treats pregnant main character nancy botwin </s>
<s> her first episode aired in july num </s>
<s> in early num morissette returned to the stage performing a one night engagement in an oak tree an experimental play in los angeles </s>
<s> the performance was a sell out </s>
<s> in april num morissette was confirmed in the cast of weeds season six performing again her role as audra kitson </s>
<s> morissette dated actor and comedian dave coulier num years her senior for a short time in the early num </s>
<s> in a num interview with the calgary herald coulier claimed to be the ex-boyfriend who inspired morissette song you oughta know </s>
<s> morissette however has maintained her silence on the subject of the song </s>
<s> morissette met canadian actor ryan reynolds at drew barrymore birthday party in num and the couple began dating soon after </s>
<s> they announced their engagement in june num </s>
<s> in february num representatives for morissette and reynolds announced they had mutually decided to end their engagement </s>
<s> morissette has stated that her album flavors of entanglement was created out of her grief after the break-up saying that it was cathartic </s>
<s> on may num num morissette married rapper mario mc treadway in a private ceremony at their los angeles home </s>
<s> their first child ever imre morissette-treadway was born on december num num </s>
<s> morissette is a vegan </s>
<s> adobe illustrator is a vector graphics editor developed and marketed by adobe systems </s>
<s> the latest version illustrator cs5 is the fifteenth generation in the product line </s>
<s> adobe illustrator was first developed for the apple macintosh in num shipping in january num as a commercialization of adobe in-house font development software and postscript file format </s>
<s> adobe illustrator is the companion product of adobe photoshop </s>
<s> photoshop is primarily geared toward digital photo manipulation and photorealistic styles of computer illustration while illustrator provides results in the typesetting and logo graphic areas of design </s>
<s> early magazine advertisements featured in graphic design trade magazines such as communication arts referred to the product as the adobe illustrator </s>
<s> illustrator num the product name for version was released in num and introduced many new tools and features </s>
<s> as of num the adobe illustrator file format is used in the matlab programming language as an option to save figures </s>
<s> although during its first decade adobe developed illustrator primarily for macintosh it sporadically supported other platforms </s>
<s> in the early num adobe released versions of illustrator for next silicon graphics irix and sun solaris platforms but they were discontinued due to poor market acceptance </s>
<s> the first version of illustrator for windows version was released in early num and flopped </s>
<s> the next windows version version was widely criticized as being too similar to illustrator instead of the macintosh version and certainly not the equal of windows most popular illustration package coreldraw </s>
<s> note that there were no versions or for the macintosh although the second release for the mac was titled illustrator num the year of its release </s>
<s> version num was however the first version of illustrator to support editing in preview mode which did not appear in a macintosh version until in num </s>
<s> with the introduction of illustrator num in num adobe made critical changes in the user interface with regards to path editing and also to converge on the same user interface as adobe photoshop and many users opted not to upgrade </s>
<s> illustrator also began to support truetype making the font wars between postscript type num and truetype largely moot </s>
<s> like photoshop illustrator also began supporting plug-ins greatly and quickly extending its abilities </s>
<s> with true ports of the macintosh versions to windows starting with version num in num designers could finally standardize on illustrator </s>
<s> corel did port coreldraw to the macintosh in late num but it was received as too little too late </s>
<s> aldus ported freehand to windows but it was not the equal of illustrator because version upgrades did not keep up with adobe releases </s>
<s> designers tended to like one or the other program based on what they learned first </s>
<s> there are several capabilities in freehand still not available in illustrator certain scaling abilities </s>
<s> corel was never considered a professional level tool by major agencies or design shops </s>
<s> famously aldus did a comparison matrix between its own freehand illustrator and draw and draw one win was that it came with three different clip art views of the human pancreas </s>
<s> adobe bought aldus in num for pagemaker and as part of the transaction it sold freehand to macromedia which was later acquired by adobe </s>
<s> the difference in strengths between photoshop and illustrator became clear with the rise of the internet illustrator was enhanced to support web publishing rasterization previewing pdf and svg </s>
<s> version num included a tracing feature similar to that within adobe discontinued product streamline </s>
<s> illustrator cs was the first version to include num capabilities allowing users to extrude or revolve shapes to create simple num objects </s>
<s> to reflect its integration with the adobe creative suite illustrator cs2 version num was available for both the mac os x and microsoft windows operating systems </s>
<s> it was the last version for the mac which did not run natively on intel processors </s>
<s> among the new features included in illustrator cs2 were live trace live paint a control palette and custom workspaces </s>
<s> live trace allows for the conversion of bitmap imagery into vector art and improved upon the previous tracing abilities </s>
<s> live paint allows users more flexibility in applying color to objects specifically those that overlap </s>
<s> cs3 included interface updates to the control bar the ability to align individual points multiple crop areas the color guide panel and the live color feature among others </s>
<s> cs4 was released in october num </s>
<s> it features a variety of improvements to old tools along with the introduction of a few brand new tools </s>
<s> the ability to create multiple artboards is one of cs4 s main additions although still not equal to the true multiple page capability of freehand </s>
<s> the artboards allow you to create multiple versions of a piece of work within a single document </s>
<s> other tools include the blob brush which allows multiple overlapping vector brush strokes to easily merge or join and a revamped gradient tool allowing for more in-depth color manipulation as well as transparency in gradients </s>
<s> cs5 was released in april num </s>
<s> along with a number of enhancements to existing functionality illustrator cs5 new features include a perspective grid tool a bristle brush for more natural and painterly looking strokes and a comprehensive update to strokes referred to by adobe as beautiful strokes </s>
<s> starting with version adobe chose to license an image of sandro botticelli the birth of venus from the bettmann archive and use the portion containing venus face as illustrator branding image </s>
<s> warnock desired a renaissance image to evoke his vision of postscript as a new renaissance in publishing and adobe employee luanne seymour cohen who was responsible for the early marketing material found venus flowing tresses a perfect vehicle for demonstrating illustrator strength in tracing smooth curves over bitmap source images </s>
<s> over the years the rendition of this image on illustrator splash screen and packaging became more stylized to reflect features added in each version </s>
<s> the image of venus was replaced albeit still accessible via easter egg in illustrator cs and cs2 by a stylized flower to conform to the creative suite nature imagery </s>
<s> in cs3 adobe changed the suite branding once again to simple colored blocks with two-letter abbreviations resembling a periodic table of elements </s>
<s> illustrator was represented by the letters ai in white against an orange background oranges and yellows were prominent color schemes in illustrator branding going back as far as version </s>
<s> the cs4 icon is almost identical except for a slight alteration to the font and the color which is dark gray </s>
<s> the cs5 icon is also virtually the same except that this time the logo is like a box along with all the other cs5 product logos </s>
<s> the ai is now bright yellow </s>
<s> adobe illustrator contains the following languages arabic middle eastern version chinese simplified chinese traditional czech danish dutch english french french canadian german greek hebrew middle eastern version hungarian italian japanese korean polish romanian russian spanish spanish latin american swedish turkish indonesia ukrainian </s>
<s> ilocano </s>
<s> andouille is defined as a coarse-grained smoked meat made using pork pepper onions wine and seasonings </s>
<s> andouille is french in origin and was later brought to the united states through louisiana by french immigrants </s>
<s> in the united states the sausage is most often associated with cajun cooking </s>
<s> andouille sausages are sometimes referred to as hot link sausages </s>
<s> andouille is a spiced heavily smoked pork sausage distinguished in some varieties by its use of the entire gastrointestinal system of the pig for example traditional french andouille is composed primarily of the intestines and stomach </s>
<s> though somewhat similar it is not to be confused with andouillette </s>
<s> the style of sausage is now widespread and so it is unclear whether it originated in france whence the name comes or in germany where similar recipes also have a long history </s>
<s> a similar sausage nduja is produced in the region of calabria in southern italy the name is clearly derived from the french and it is thought that the recipe may have spread there from france during periods of french dominance in the middle ages </s>
<s> this suggests a history going back at least num years </s>
<s> due to the rising popularity of cajun cuisine it is mistakenly believed to be a spicy sausage </s>
<s> true andouille is a savory sausage that lacks any real heat in its flavor </s>
<s> in cooking it is used more as a dish enhancer </s>
<s> the fat in authentic andouille melts into the dish thus adding flavor in the process </s>
<s> andouille prepared in the united states outside of louisiana and southeast texas tends to be a spicy sausage seasoned with red pepper and in most cases not smoked </s>
<s> the recipe was brought to the new world by the french colonists of louisiana and cajun andouille is the best-known variety in the united states </s>
<s> the spiciest of all the variants cajun andouille is made of butt or shank meat and fat seasoned with salt cracked black pepper and garlic and smoked over pecan wood and sugar cane for up to seven or eight hours at approximately num f num c </s>
<s> the resulting sausage is used in a wide range of louisiana dishes such as gumbo jambalaya red beans and rice and </s>
<s> laplace louisiana has proclaimed itself the andouille capital of the world and holds a huge festival every third weekend of october in which a ceremonial queen is chosen as miss andouille </s>
<s> laplace is also the home to jacobs sausage and bailey sausage </s>
<s> both are family owned businesses that have more than num years of documented sausage making </s>
<s> to this day both families dispute the origin of the sausage and its true creator in modern form </s>
<s> arithmetic or arithmetics from the greek word number is the oldest and most elementary branch of mathematics used by almost everyone for tasks ranging from simple day-to-day counting to advanced science and business calculations </s>
<s> it involves the study of quantity especially as the result of combining numbers </s>
<s> in common usage it refers to the simpler properties when using the traditional operations of addition subtraction multiplication and division with smaller values of numbers </s>
<s> professional mathematicians sometimes use the term higher arithmetic when referring to more advanced results related to number theory but this should not be confused with elementary arithmetic </s>
<s> the prehistory of arithmetic is limited to a very small number of small artifacts which may indicate conception of addition and subtraction the best-known being the ishango bone from central africa dating from somewhere between and bc although its interpretation is disputed </s>
<s> the earliest written records indicate the egyptians and babylonians used all the elementary arithmetic operations as early as num bc </s>
<s> these artifacts do not always reveal the specific process used for solving problems but the characteristics of the particular numeral system strongly influence the complexity of the methods </s>
<s> the hieroglyphic system for egyptian numerals like the later roman numerals descended from tally marks used for counting </s>
<s> in both cases this origin resulted in values that used a decimal base but did not include positional notation </s>
<s> although addition was generally straightforward multiplication in roman arithmetic required the assistance of a counting board to obtain the results </s>
<s> early number systems that included positional notation were not decimal including the sexagesimal base num system for babylonian numerals and the vigesimal base num system that defined maya numerals </s>
<s> because of this place-value concept the ability to reuse the same digits for different values contributed to simpler and more efficient methods of calculation </s>
<s> the continuous historical development of modern arithmetic starts with the hellenistic civilization of ancient greece although it originated much later than the babylonian and egyptian examples </s>
<s> prior to the works of euclid around num bc greek studies in mathematics overlapped with philosophical and mystical beliefs </s>
<s> for example nicomachus summarized the viewpoint of the earlier pythagorean approach to numbers and their relationships to each other in his introduction to arithmetic </s>
<s> greek numerals derived from the hieratic egyptian system also lacked positional notation and therefore imposed the same complexity on the basic operations of arithmetic </s>
<s> for example the ancient mathematician archimedes devoted his entire work the sand reckoner merely to devising a notation for a certain large integer </s>
<s> the gradual development of hindu-arabic numerals independently devised the place-value concept and positional notation which combined the simpler methods for computations with a decimal base and the use of a digit representing zero </s>
<s> this allowed the system to consistently represent both large and small integers </s>
<s> this approach eventually replaced all other systems </s>
<s> in the early num century ad the indian mathematician aryabhata incorporated an existing version of this system in his work and experimented with different notations </s>
<s> in the num century brahmagupta established the use of zero as a separate number and determined the results for multiplication division addition and subtraction of zero and all other numbers except for the result of division by zero </s>
<s> his contemporary the syriac bishop severus sebokht described the excellence of this system as valuable methods of calculation which surpass description </s>
<s> the arabs also learned this new method and called it hesab </s>
<s> although the codex vigilanus described an early form of arabic numerals omitting zero by num ad fibonacci was primarily responsible for spreading their use throughout europe after the publication of his book liber abaci in num </s>
<s> he considered the significance of this new representation of numbers which he styled the method of the indians latin modus indorum so fundamental that all related mathematical foundations including the results of pythagoras and the algorism describing the methods for performing actual calculations were almost a mistake in comparison </s>
<s> in the middle ages arithmetic was one of the seven liberal arts taught in universities </s>
<s> the flourishing of algebra in the medieval islamic world and in renaissance europe was an outgrowth of the enormous simplification of computation through decimal notation </s>
<s> various types of tools exist to assist in numeric calculations </s>
<s> examples include slide rules for multiplication division and trigonometry and nomographs in addition to the electrical calculator </s>
<s> although decimal notation may conceptually describe any numerals from a system with a decimal base it is commonly used exclusively for the written forms of numbers with arabic numerals as the basic digits especially when the numeral includes a decimal separator preceding a sequence of these digits to represent a fractional part of the number </s>
<s> in this common usage the written form of the number implies the existence of positional notation </s>
<s> for example denotes num hundreds num plus num tens num plus num units num plus num tenths num num plus num hundredths num num </s>
<s> the conception of zero as a number comparable to the other basic digits and the corresponding definition of multiplication and addition with zero is an essential part of this notation </s>
<s> algorism comprises all of the rules for performing arithmetic computations using this type of written numeral </s>
<s> for example addition produces the sum of two arbitrary numbers </s>
<s> the result is calculated by the repeated addition of single digits from each number that occupies the same position proceeding from right to left </s>
<s> an addition table with ten rows and ten columns displays all possible values for each sum </s>
<s> if an individual sum exceeds the value nine the result is represented with two digits </s>
<s> the rightmost digit is the value for the current position and the result for the subsequent addition of the digits to the left increases by the value of the second leftmost digit which is always one </s>
<s> this adjustment is termed a carry of the value one </s>
<s> the process for multiplying two arbitrary numbers is similar to the process for addition </s>
<s> a multiplication table with ten rows and ten columns lists the results for each pair of digits </s>
<s> if an individual product of a pair of digits exceeds nine the carry adjustmentincreases the result of any subsequent multiplication from digits to the left by a value equal to the second leftmost digit which is any value from one to eight num num num </s>
<s> additional steps define the final result </s>
<s> similar techniques exist for subtraction and division </s>
<s> the creation of a correct process for multiplication relies on the relationship between values of adjacent digits </s>
<s> the value for any single digit in a numeral depends on its position </s>
<s> also each position to the left represents a value ten times larger than the position to the right </s>
<s> in mathematical terms the exponent for the base of ten increases by one to the left or decreases by one to the right </s>
<s> therefore the value for any arbitrary digit is multiplied by a value of the form num with integer the list of values corresponding to all possible positions for a single digit is written as </s>
<s> repeated multiplication of any value in this list by ten produces another value in the list </s>
<s> in mathematical terminology this characteristic is defined as closure and the previous list is described as closed under multiplication </s>
<s> it is the basis for correctly finding the results of multiplication using the previous technique </s>
<s> this outcome is one example of the uses of number theory </s>
<s> the basic arithmetic operations are addition subtraction multiplication and division although this subject also includes more advanced operations such as manipulations of percentages square roots exponentiation and logarithmic functions </s>
<s> arithmetic is performed according to an order of operations </s>
<s> any set of objects upon which all four arithmetic operations except division by zero can be performed and where these four operations obey the usual laws is called a field </s>
<s> addition is the basic operation of arithemetic </s>
<s> in its simplest form addition combines two numbers the addends or terms into a single number the sum of the numbers </s>
<s> adding more than two numbers can be viewed as repeated addition this procedure is known as summation and includes ways to add infinitely many numbers in an infinite series repeated addition of the number one is the most basic form of counting </s>
<s> addition is commutative and associative so the order the terms are added in does not matter </s>
<s> the identity element of addition the additive identity is num that is adding zero to any number yields that same number </s>
<s> also the inverse element of addition the additive inverse is the opposite of any number that is adding the opposite of any number to the number itself yields the additive identity num </s>
<s> for example the opposite of num is num so </s>
<s> if a and b are the lengths of two sticks then if we place the sticks one after the other the length of the stick thus formed is </s>
<s> subtraction is the opposite of addition </s>
<s> subtraction finds the difference between two numbers the minuend minus the subtrahend </s>
<s> if the minuend is larger than the subtrahend the difference is positive if the minuend is smaller than the subtrahend the difference is negative if they are equal the difference is zero </s>
<s> subtraction is neither commutative nor associative </s>
<s> for that reason it is often helpful to look at subtraction as addition of the minuend and the opposite of the subtrahend that is </s>
<s> when written as a sum all the properties of addition hold </s>
<s> there are several methods for calculating results some of which are particularly advantageous to machine calculation </s>
<s> for example digital computers employ the method of two complement </s>
<s> of great importance is the counting up method by which change is made </s>
<s> suppose an amount p is given to pay the required amount q with p greater than rather than performing the subtraction and counting out that amount in change money is counted out starting at q and continuing until reaching although the amount counted out must equal the result of the subtraction the subtraction was never really done and the value of might still be unknown to the change-maker </s>
<s> multiplication is the second basic operation of arithmetic </s>
<s> multiplication also combines two numbers into a single number the product </s>
<s> the two original numbers are called the multiplier and the multiplicand sometimes both simply called factors </s>
<s> multiplication is best viewed as a scaling operation </s>
<s> if the real numbers are imagined as lying in a line multiplication by a number say greater than num is the same as stretching everything away from zero uniformly in such a way that the number num itself is stretched to where was </s>
<s> similarly multiplying by a number less than num can be imagined as squeezing towards zero </s>
<s> again in such a way that num goes to the multiplicand </s>
<s> multiplication is commutative and associative further it is distributive over addition and subtraction </s>
<s> the multiplicative identity is num that is multiplying any number by num yields that same number </s>
<s> also the multiplicative inverse is the reciprocal of any number except zero zero is the only number without a multiplicative inverse that is multiplying the reciprocal of any number by the number itself yields the multiplicative identity </s>
<s> the product of a and b is written as a b or a when a or b are expressions not written simply with digits it is also written by simple juxtaposition ab </s>
<s> in computer programming languages and software packages in which one can only use characters normally found on a keyboard it is often written with an asterisk a </s>
<s> division is essentially the opposite of multiplication </s>
<s> division finds the quotient of two numbers the dividend divided by the divisor </s>
<s> any dividend divided by zero is undefined </s>
<s> for positive numbers if the dividend is larger than the divisor the quotient is greater than one otherwise it is less than one a similar rule applies for negative numbers </s>
<s> the quotient multiplied by the divisor always yields the dividend </s>
<s> division is neither commutative nor associative </s>
<s> as it is helpful to look at subtraction as addition it is helpful to look at division as multiplication of the dividend times the reciprocal of the divisor that is a b a </s>
<s> when written as a product it obeys all the properties of multiplication </s>
<s> the term arithmetic also refers to number theory </s>
<s> this includes the properties of integers related to primality divisibility and the solution of equations in integers as well as modern research that is an outgrowth of this study </s>
<s> it is in this context that one runs across the fundamental theorem of arithmetic and arithmetic functions </s>
<s> a course in arithmetic by jean-pierre serre reflects this usage as do such phrases as first order arithmetic or arithmetical algebraic geometry </s>
<s> number theory is also referred to as the higher arithmetic as in the title of harold davenport book on the subject </s>
<s> primary education in mathematics often places a strong focus on algorithms for the arithmetic of natural numbers integers rational numbers fractions and real numbers using the decimal place-value system </s>
<s> this study is sometimes known as algorism </s>
<s> the difficulty and unmotivated appearance of these algorithms has long led educators to question this curriculum advocating the early teaching of more central and intuitive mathematical ideas </s>
<s> one notable movement in this direction was the new math of the num and num which attempted to teach arithmetic in the spirit of axiomatic development from set theory an echo of the prevailing trend in higher mathematics </s>
<s> addition is a mathematical operation that represents combining collections of objects together into a larger collection </s>
<s> it is signified by the plus sign </s>
<s> for example in the picture on the right there are num num meaning three apples and two other which is the same as five apples </s>
<s> therefore num num num </s>
<s> besides counting fruits addition can also represent combining other physical and abstract quantities using different kinds of numbers negative numbers fractions irrational numbers vectors decimals and more </s>
<s> addition follows several important patterns </s>
<s> it is commutative meaning that order does not matter and it is associative meaning that when one adds more than two numbers order in which addition is performed does not matter see summation </s>
<s> repeated addition of num is the same as counting addition of num does not change a number </s>
<s> addition also obeys predictable rules concerning related operations such as subtraction and multiplication </s>
<s> all of these rules can be proven starting with the addition of natural numbers and generalizing up through the real numbers and beyond </s>
<s> general binary operations that continue these patterns are studied in abstract algebra </s>
<s> performing addition is one of the simplest numerical tasks </s>
<s> addition of very small numbers is accessible to toddlers the most basic task num num can be performed by infants as young as five months and even some animals </s>
<s> in primary education children learn to add numbers in the decimal system starting with single digits and progressively tackling more difficult problems </s>
<s> mechanical aids range from the ancient abacus to the modern computer where research on the most efficient implementations of addition continues to this day </s>
<s> addition is written using the plus sign between the terms that is in infix notation </s>
<s> the result is expressed with an equals sign </s>
<s> for example </s>
<s> the sum of a series of related numbers can be expressed through capital sigma notation which compactly denotes iteration </s>
<s> for example </s>
<s> the numbers or the objects to be added in general addition are called the terms the addends or the summands this terminology carries over to the summation of multiple terms </s>
<s> this is to be distinguished from factors which are multiplied </s>
<s> some authors call the first addend the augend </s>
<s> in fact during the renaissance many authors did not consider the first addend an addend at all </s>
<s> today due to the symmetry of addition augend is rarely used and both terms are generally called addends </s>
<s> all of this terminology derives from latin </s>
<s> addition and add are english words derived from the latin verb addere which is in turn a compound of ad to and dare to give from the proto-indo-european root to give thus to add is to give to </s>
<s> using the gerundive suffix nd results in addend thing to be added </s>
<s> likewise from augere to increase one gets augend thing to be increased </s>
<s> sum and summand derive from the latin noun summa the highest the top and associated verb summare </s>
<s> this is appropriate not only because the sum of two positive numbers is greater than either but because it was once common to add upward contrary to the modern practice of adding downward so that a sum was literally higher than the addends </s>
<s> addere and summare date back at least to boethius if not to earlier roman writers such as vitruvius and frontinus boethius also used several other terms for the addition operation </s>
<s> the later middle english terms adden and adding were popularized by chaucer </s>
<s> addition is used to model countless physical processes </s>
<s> even for the simple case of adding natural numbers there are many possible interpretations and even more visual representations </s>
<s> this interpretation is easy to visualize with little danger of ambiguity </s>