diff --git a/.gitignore b/.gitignore
index 6dda408d30db0..f48cdeb4f0a8c 100644
--- a/.gitignore
+++ b/.gitignore
@@ -26,3 +26,5 @@ coverage/
 # CDK Context & Staging files
 cdk.context.json
 .cdk.staging/
+cdk.out/
+
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/applet-js/README.md b/packages/@aws-cdk/applet-js/README.md
index d583b3dbc1f08..c71d87e54ea60 100644
--- a/packages/@aws-cdk/applet-js/README.md
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/applet-js/README.md
@@ -1,2 +1,5 @@
 ## AWS CDK applet host program for Javascript
+
+CDK applets have been deprecated in favor of [decdk](https://github.com/awslabs/aws-cdk/tree/master/packages/decdk).
+
 This module is part of the [AWS Cloud Development Kit](https://github.com/awslabs/aws-cdk) project.
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/applet-js/bin/cdk-applet-js.ts b/packages/@aws-cdk/applet-js/bin/cdk-applet-js.ts
index f75a94a1338f3..f94028c403f17 100644
--- a/packages/@aws-cdk/applet-js/bin/cdk-applet-js.ts
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/applet-js/bin/cdk-applet-js.ts
@@ -1,104 +1,3 @@
 #!/usr/bin/env node
-import 'source-map-support/register';
-
-import cdk = require('@aws-cdk/cdk');
-import child_process = require('child_process');
-import fs = require('fs-extra');
-import os = require('os');
-import path = require('path');
-import YAML = require('yaml');
-
-import { isStackConstructor, parseApplet } from '../lib/applet-helpers';
-
-main().catch(e => {
-  // tslint:disable-next-line:no-console
-  console.error(e);
-  process.exit(1);
-});
-
-async function main() {
-  const progname = path.basename(process.argv[1]);
-
-  const appletFile = process.argv[2];
-  if (!appletFile) {
-    throw new Error(`Usage: ${progname} <applet.yaml>`);
-  }
-
-  // read applet(s) properties from the provided file
-  const fileContents = YAML.parse(await fs.readFile(appletFile, { encoding: 'utf-8' }));
-  if (typeof fileContents !== 'object') {
-    throw new Error(`${appletFile}: should contain a YAML object`);
-  }
-  const appletMap = fileContents.applets;
-  if (!appletMap) {
-    throw new Error(`${appletFile}: must have an 'applets' key`);
-  }
-
-  const searchDir = path.dirname(appletFile);
-  const tempDir = await fs.mkdtemp(path.join(os.tmpdir(), 'cdkapplet'));
-  try {
-    const app = new cdk.App();
-
-    for (const [name, definition] of Object.entries(appletMap)) {
-      await constructStack(app, searchDir, tempDir, name, definition);
-    }
-    app.run();
-  } finally {
-    await fs.remove(tempDir);
-  }
-}
-
-/**
- * Construct a stack from the given props
- * @param props Const
- */
-async function constructStack(app: cdk.App, searchDir: string, tempDir: string, stackName: string, spec: any) {
-  // the 'applet' attribute tells us how to load the applet. in the javascript case
-  // it will be in the format <module>:<class> where <module> is technically passed to "require"
-  // and <class> is expected to be exported from the module.
-  const appletSpec: string | undefined = spec.type;
-  if (!appletSpec) {
-    throw new Error(`Applet ${stackName} missing "type" attribute`);
-  }
-
-  const applet = parseApplet(appletSpec);
-
-  const props = spec.properties || {};
-
-  if (applet.npmPackage) {
-    // tslint:disable-next-line:no-console
-    console.error(`Installing NPM package ${applet.npmPackage}`);
-    // Magic marker to download this package directly off of NPM
-    // We're going to run NPM as a shell (since programmatic usage is not stable
-    // by their own admission) and we're installing into a temporary directory.
-    // (Installing into a permanent directory is useless since NPM doesn't do
-    // any real caching anyway).
-    child_process.execFileSync('npm', ['install', '--prefix', tempDir, '--global', applet.npmPackage], {
-      stdio: 'inherit'
-    });
-    searchDir = path.join(tempDir, 'lib');
-  }
-
-  // we need to resolve the module name relatively to where the applet file is
-  // and not relative to this module or cwd.
-  const modulePath = require.resolve(applet.moduleName, { paths: [ searchDir ] });
-
-  // load the module
-  const pkg = require(modulePath);
-
-  // find the applet class within the package
-  // tslint:disable-next-line:variable-name
-  const appletConstructor = pkg[applet.className];
-  if (!appletConstructor) {
-    throw new Error(`Cannot find applet class "${applet.className}" in module "${applet.moduleName}"`);
-  }
-
-  if (isStackConstructor(appletConstructor)) {
-    // add the applet stack into the app.
-    new appletConstructor(app, stackName, props);
-  } else {
-    // Make a stack THEN add it in
-    const stack = new cdk.Stack(app, stackName, props);
-    new appletConstructor(stack, 'Default', props);
-  }
-}
+// tslint:disable-next-line:no-console
+console.error('applets are no longer supported. see: https://github.com/awslabs/aws-cdk/tree/master/packages/decdk');
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/applet-js/lib/applet-helpers.ts b/packages/@aws-cdk/applet-js/lib/applet-helpers.ts
deleted file mode 100644
index 2bc519d12ad06..0000000000000
--- a/packages/@aws-cdk/applet-js/lib/applet-helpers.ts
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,52 +0,0 @@
-/**
- * Determine whether this constructorFunction is going to create an object that inherits from Stack
- *
- * We do structural typing.
- */
-export function isStackConstructor(constructorFn: any) {
-  // Test for a public method that Stack has
-  return constructorFn.prototype.findResource !== undefined;
-}
-
-/**
- * Extract module name from a NPM package specification
- */
-export function extractModuleName(packageSpec: string) {
-    const m = /^((?:@[a-zA-Z-]+\/)?[a-zA-Z-]+)/i.exec(packageSpec);
-    if (!m) { throw new Error(`Could not find package name in ${packageSpec}`); }
-    return m[1];
-}
-
-export function parseApplet(applet: string): AppletSpec {
-  const m = /^(npm:\/\/)?([a-z0-9_@./-]+)(:[a-z_0-9]+)?$/i.exec(applet);
-  if (!m) {
-    throw new Error(`"applet" value is "${applet}" but it must be in the form "[npm://]<js-module>[:<applet-class>]".
-      If <applet-class> is not specified, "Applet" is the default`);
-  }
-
-  if (m[1] === 'npm://') {
-    return {
-      npmPackage: m[2],
-      moduleName: extractModuleName(m[2]),
-      className: className(m[3]),
-    };
-  } else {
-    return {
-      moduleName: m[2],
-      className: className(m[3]),
-    };
-  }
-
-  function className(s: string | undefined) {
-    if (s) {
-      return s.substr(1);
-    }
-    return 'Applet';
-  }
-}
-
-export interface AppletSpec {
-  npmPackage?: string;
-  moduleName: string;
-  className: string;
-}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/applet-js/package.json b/packages/@aws-cdk/applet-js/package.json
index 2c337276cb23b..7f5abe38296f8 100644
--- a/packages/@aws-cdk/applet-js/package.json
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/applet-js/package.json
@@ -1,6 +1,7 @@
 {
   "name": "@aws-cdk/applet-js",
   "version": "0.32.0",
+  "deprecated": "Applets have been deprecated in favor of 'decdk'",
   "description": "Javascript CDK applet host program",
   "main": "bin/cdk-applet-js.js",
   "types": "bin/cdk-applet-js.d.ts",
@@ -25,16 +26,9 @@
   "license": "Apache-2.0",
   "devDependencies": {
     "@types/fs-extra": "^5.0.5",
-    "@types/yaml": "^1.0.2",
     "cdk-build-tools": "^0.32.0",
     "pkglint": "^0.32.0"
   },
-  "dependencies": {
-    "@aws-cdk/cdk": "^0.32.0",
-    "fs-extra": "^7.0.1",
-    "source-map-support": "^0.5.12",
-    "yaml": "^1.5.0"
-  },
   "repository": {
     "url": "https://github.com/awslabs/aws-cdk.git",
     "type": "git",
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/applet-js/test/expected1.json b/packages/@aws-cdk/applet-js/test/expected1.json
deleted file mode 100644
index 5f49964fdcf1e..0000000000000
--- a/packages/@aws-cdk/applet-js/test/expected1.json
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,35 +0,0 @@
-{
-  "name": "TestApplet",
-  "template": {
-    "Parameters": {
-      "P1": {
-        "Type": "String",
-        "Default": "hello"
-      },
-      "P2": {
-        "Type": "Number",
-        "Default": 123
-      }
-    }
-  },
-  "metadata": {
-    "/TestApplet/P1": [
-      {
-        "type": "aws:cdk:logicalId",
-        "data": "P1",
-        "trace": [
-          "**REDACTED**"
-        ]
-      }
-    ],
-    "/TestApplet/P2": [
-      {
-        "type": "aws:cdk:logicalId",
-        "data": "P2",
-        "trace": [
-          "**REDACTED**"
-        ]
-      }
-    ]
-  }
-}
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/applet-js/test/expected2.json b/packages/@aws-cdk/applet-js/test/expected2.json
deleted file mode 100644
index 3ef09cc69797f..0000000000000
--- a/packages/@aws-cdk/applet-js/test/expected2.json
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,48 +0,0 @@
-{
-  "name": "TestApplet",
-  "template": {
-    "Parameters": {
-      "P1": {
-        "Type": "String",
-        "Default": "hello"
-      },
-      "P2": {
-        "Type": "Number",
-        "Default": 123
-      },
-      "P3": {
-        "Type": "StringList",
-        "Default": "hello,this,is,awesome,12345"
-      }
-    }
-  },
-  "metadata": {
-    "/TestApplet/P1": [
-      {
-        "type": "aws:cdk:logicalId",
-        "data": "P1",
-        "trace": [
-          "**REDACTED**"
-            ]
-      }
-    ],
-    "/TestApplet/P2": [
-      {
-        "type": "aws:cdk:logicalId",
-        "data": "P2",
-        "trace": [
-          "**REDACTED**"
-            ]
-      }
-    ],
-    "/TestApplet/P3": [
-      {
-        "type": "aws:cdk:logicalId",
-        "data": "P3",
-        "trace": [
-          "**REDACTED**"
-            ]
-      }
-    ]
-  }
-}
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/applet-js/test/expected3.json b/packages/@aws-cdk/applet-js/test/expected3.json
deleted file mode 100644
index 495c9527bb181..0000000000000
--- a/packages/@aws-cdk/applet-js/test/expected3.json
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,7 +0,0 @@
-{
-  "name": "Applet",
-  "template": {
-    "Description": "this should be reflected in the template description"
-  },
-  "metadata": {}
-}
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/applet-js/test/manual-test-npm.yaml b/packages/@aws-cdk/applet-js/test/manual-test-npm.yaml
deleted file mode 100644
index 6bc517200cd34..0000000000000
--- a/packages/@aws-cdk/applet-js/test/manual-test-npm.yaml
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,3 +0,0 @@
-applets:
-  Hello:
-    type: npm://@aws-cdk/aws-ecs:Hello
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/applet-js/test/negative-test4.yaml b/packages/@aws-cdk/applet-js/test/negative-test4.yaml
deleted file mode 100755
index 25a9c1f24031b..0000000000000
--- a/packages/@aws-cdk/applet-js/test/negative-test4.yaml
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,4 +0,0 @@
-# malformed applet specification
-applets:
-  Applet:
-    type: invalid:number:of:components:in:applet:name
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/applet-js/test/negative-test5.yaml b/packages/@aws-cdk/applet-js/test/negative-test5.yaml
deleted file mode 100755
index 233462e65d968..0000000000000
--- a/packages/@aws-cdk/applet-js/test/negative-test5.yaml
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,4 +0,0 @@
-# applet module not found
-applets:
-  Applet:
-    type: notfound
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/applet-js/test/negative-test6.yaml b/packages/@aws-cdk/applet-js/test/negative-test6.yaml
deleted file mode 100755
index 6989798953d29..0000000000000
--- a/packages/@aws-cdk/applet-js/test/negative-test6.yaml
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,4 +0,0 @@
-# applet class not found
-applets:
-  Applet:
-    type: ./test-applet:ClassNotFound
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/applet-js/test/negative-test7.yaml b/packages/@aws-cdk/applet-js/test/negative-test7.yaml
deleted file mode 100755
index 65710d6706fcb..0000000000000
--- a/packages/@aws-cdk/applet-js/test/negative-test7.yaml
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,4 +0,0 @@
-# no module
-applets:
-  Applet:
-    type: :TestApplet
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/applet-js/test/test-applet.ts b/packages/@aws-cdk/applet-js/test/test-applet.ts
deleted file mode 100644
index 1254b5a766420..0000000000000
--- a/packages/@aws-cdk/applet-js/test/test-applet.ts
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,44 +0,0 @@
-import { App, CfnParameter, Construct, Stack, StackProps } from '@aws-cdk/cdk';
-
-export interface TestAppletProps extends StackProps {
-  prop1: string
-  prop2: number
-  prop3?: string[]
-}
-
-export class TestApplet extends Stack {
-  constructor(scope: App, id: string, props: TestAppletProps) {
-    super(scope, id, props);
-
-    new CfnParameter(this, 'P1', { default: this.node.required(props, 'prop1'), type: 'String' });
-    new CfnParameter(this, 'P2', { default: this.node.required(props, 'prop2'), type: 'Number' });
-
-    if (props.prop3) {
-      new CfnParameter(this, 'P3', { default: props.prop3.join(','), type: 'StringList' });
-    }
-  }
-}
-
-export interface AppletProps extends StackProps {
-  desc?: string
-}
-
-export class Applet extends Stack {
-  constructor(scope: App, id: string, props: AppletProps) {
-    super(scope, id);
-
-    this.templateOptions.description = props.desc;
-  }
-}
-
-interface NoStackAppletProps {
-  argument: string;
-}
-
-export class NoStackApplet extends Construct {
-  constructor(scope: Construct, id: string, props: NoStackAppletProps) {
-    super(scope, id);
-
-    new CfnParameter(this, 'P1', { default: props.argument, type: 'String' });
-  }
-}
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/applet-js/test/test-multistack-expected.json b/packages/@aws-cdk/applet-js/test/test-multistack-expected.json
deleted file mode 100644
index d3cfb592f5396..0000000000000
--- a/packages/@aws-cdk/applet-js/test/test-multistack-expected.json
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,35 +0,0 @@
-{
-  "name": "Stack2",
-  "template": {
-    "Parameters": {
-      "P1": {
-        "Type": "String",
-        "Default": "stack2"
-      },
-      "P2": {
-        "Type": "Number",
-        "Default": 456
-      }
-    }
-  },
-  "metadata": {
-    "/Stack2/P1": [
-      {
-        "type": "aws:cdk:logicalId",
-        "data": "P1",
-        "trace": [
-          "**REDACTED**"
-        ]
-      }
-    ],
-    "/Stack2/P2": [
-      {
-        "type": "aws:cdk:logicalId",
-        "data": "P2",
-        "trace": [
-          "**REDACTED**"
-        ]
-      }
-    ]
-  }
-}
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/applet-js/test/test-multistack.yaml b/packages/@aws-cdk/applet-js/test/test-multistack.yaml
deleted file mode 100644
index 41259ead87f34..0000000000000
--- a/packages/@aws-cdk/applet-js/test/test-multistack.yaml
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,11 +0,0 @@
-applets:
-  Stack1:
-    type: ./test-applet:TestApplet
-    properties:
-      prop1: stack1
-      prop2: 123
-  Stack2:
-    type: ./test-applet:TestApplet
-    properties:
-      prop1: stack2
-      prop2: 456
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/applet-js/test/test-nonstack-expected.json b/packages/@aws-cdk/applet-js/test/test-nonstack-expected.json
deleted file mode 100644
index 3abdc38dc8187..0000000000000
--- a/packages/@aws-cdk/applet-js/test/test-nonstack-expected.json
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,22 +0,0 @@
-{
-  "name": "NoStackApplet",
-  "template": {
-    "Parameters": {
-      "P1": {
-        "Type": "String",
-        "Default": "this should be reflected in the template description"
-      }
-    }
-  },
-  "metadata": {
-    "/NoStackApplet/Default/P1": [
-      {
-        "type": "aws:cdk:logicalId",
-        "data": "P1",
-        "trace": [
-          "**REDACTED**"
-        ]
-      }
-    ]
-  }
-}
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/applet-js/test/test-nonstack.yaml b/packages/@aws-cdk/applet-js/test/test-nonstack.yaml
deleted file mode 100644
index 7f2e960cf0391..0000000000000
--- a/packages/@aws-cdk/applet-js/test/test-nonstack.yaml
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,6 +0,0 @@
-applets:
-  NoStackApplet:
-    type: ./test-applet:NoStackApplet
-    properties:
-      argument: this should be reflected in the template description
-
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/applet-js/test/test.applets.ts b/packages/@aws-cdk/applet-js/test/test.applets.ts
deleted file mode 100644
index 1e0cd80f67fc8..0000000000000
--- a/packages/@aws-cdk/applet-js/test/test.applets.ts
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,117 +0,0 @@
-import child_process = require('child_process');
-import fs = require('fs');
-import { Test } from 'nodeunit';
-import os = require('os');
-import path = require('path');
-
-export = {
-  'basic test 1'(test: Test) {
-    expectMatch(test, 'test/expected1.json', getStack('TestApplet', synthesizeApplet('test/test1.yaml')));
-    test.done();
-  },
-
-  'basic test 2'(test: Test) {
-    expectMatch(test, 'test/expected2.json', getStack('TestApplet', synthesizeApplet('test/test2.yaml')));
-    test.done();
-  },
-
-  'can use shebang'(test: Test) {
-    fs.chmodSync('test/test3.yaml', 0o755);
-    expectMatch(test, 'test/expected3.json', getStack('Applet', synthesizeApplet('test/test3.yaml', true)));
-    test.done();
-  },
-
-  'test non stack construct'(test: Test) {
-    expectMatch(test, 'test/test-nonstack-expected.json', getStack('NoStackApplet', synthesizeApplet('test/test-nonstack.yaml')));
-    test.done();
-  },
-
-  'test multiple stacks'(test: Test) {
-    expectMatch(test, 'test/test-multistack-expected.json', getStack('Stack2', synthesizeApplet('test/test-multistack.yaml')));
-    test.done();
-  },
-
-  'expect failure 4'(test: Test) {
-    test.throws(() => {
-      synthesizeApplet('test/negative-test4.yaml');
-    }, /but it must be in the form/);
-    test.done();
-  },
-
-  'expect failure 5'(test: Test) {
-    test.throws(() => {
-      synthesizeApplet('test/negative-test5.yaml');
-    }, /Cannot find module/);
-    test.done();
-  },
-
-  'expect failure 6'(test: Test) {
-    test.throws(() => {
-      synthesizeApplet('test/negative-test6.yaml');
-    }, /Cannot find applet class/);
-    test.done();
-  },
-
-  'expect failure 7'(test: Test) {
-    test.throws(() => {
-      synthesizeApplet('test/negative-test7.yaml');
-    }, /but it must be in the form/);
-    test.done();
-  },
-};
-
-function expectMatch(test: Test, expectedFile: string, stack: any) {
-  try {
-    const expected = JSON.parse(fs.readFileSync(expectedFile, { encoding: 'utf-8' }));
-    test.deepEqual(stack, expected);
-  } catch (e) {
-    if (e.code === 'ENOENT') {
-      // tslint:disable-next-line:no-console
-      console.log(JSON.stringify(stack, undefined, 2));
-      throw new Error(`Make a file ${expectedFile} with the previous contents`);
-    }
-  }
-}
-
-function synthesizeApplet(yamlFile: string, direct = false) {
-  // Can't depend on aws-cdk here, so we're reimplementing cx-api.
-  // tslint:disable-next-line:no-console
-  console.log('Writing to ', os.tmpdir());
-
-  const command = direct ? yamlFile : 'cdk-applet-js';
-  const args = direct ? [] : [yamlFile];
-  const outdir = fs.mkdtempSync(path.join(os.tmpdir(), 'cdk-applet-tests'));
-
-  child_process.execFileSync(command, args, {
-    env: {
-      ...process.env,
-      CDK_OUTDIR: outdir,
-      PATH: 'bin:' + process.env.PATH
-    }
-  });
-
-  return JSON.parse(fs.readFileSync(path.join(outdir, 'cdk.out'), { encoding: 'utf-8' }));
-}
-
-function getStack(stackName: string, allStacks: any) {
-  for (const stack of allStacks.stacks) {
-    if (stack.name === stackName) {
-      return stripStackMetadata(stack);
-    }
-  }
-
-  // tslint:disable-next-line:no-console
-  console.log(allStacks);
-  throw new Error('Could not find stack: ' + stackName);
-}
-
-function stripStackMetadata(stack: any) {
-  for (const key of Object.keys(stack.metadata)) {
-    if (!stack.metadata[key]) { continue; }
-    for (const entry of (stack.metadata[key] as any[])) {
-      if (entry.trace) { entry.trace = ['**REDACTED**']; }
-    }
-  }
-  delete stack.environment;
-  return stack;
-}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/applet-js/test/test.helpers.ts b/packages/@aws-cdk/applet-js/test/test.helpers.ts
deleted file mode 100644
index 31d03ce711c46..0000000000000
--- a/packages/@aws-cdk/applet-js/test/test.helpers.ts
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,56 +0,0 @@
-import cdk = require('@aws-cdk/cdk');
-import { Test } from 'nodeunit';
-import { extractModuleName, isStackConstructor, parseApplet } from '../lib/applet-helpers';
-
-export = {
-  'test that refactoring Stack didn\'t break Stack detection'(test: Test) {
-    test.equals(true, isStackConstructor(cdk.Stack));
-    test.done();
-  },
-
-  'test package name extraction'(test: Test) {
-    test.equals('my-package', extractModuleName('my-package'));
-    test.equals('my-package', extractModuleName('my-package@1.0'));
-    test.equals('@scope/my-package', extractModuleName('@scope/my-package'));
-    test.equals('@scope/my-package', extractModuleName('@scope/my-package@1.0'));
-    test.done();
-  },
-
-  'test applet name extraction'(test: Test) {
-    test.deepEqual(parseApplet('applet'), {
-      moduleName: 'applet',
-      className: 'Applet'
-    });
-
-    test.deepEqual(parseApplet('applet:Class'), {
-      moduleName: 'applet',
-      className: 'Class'
-    });
-
-    test.deepEqual(parseApplet('npm://applet:Class'), {
-      npmPackage: 'applet',
-      moduleName: 'applet',
-      className: 'Class'
-    });
-
-    test.deepEqual(parseApplet('npm://applet@1.0:Class'), {
-      npmPackage: 'applet@1.0',
-      moduleName: 'applet',
-      className: 'Class'
-    });
-
-    test.deepEqual(parseApplet('npm://applet@1.0'), {
-      npmPackage: 'applet@1.0',
-      moduleName: 'applet',
-      className: 'Applet'
-    });
-
-    test.deepEqual(parseApplet('npm://@scope/applet@1.0'), {
-      npmPackage: '@scope/applet@1.0',
-      moduleName: '@scope/applet',
-      className: 'Applet'
-    });
-
-    test.done();
-  }
-};
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/applet-js/test/test1.yaml b/packages/@aws-cdk/applet-js/test/test1.yaml
deleted file mode 100644
index 2f4e0a2e08173..0000000000000
--- a/packages/@aws-cdk/applet-js/test/test1.yaml
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,7 +0,0 @@
-# applet is loaded from the local ./test-applet.js file
-applets:
-  TestApplet:
-    type: ./test-applet:TestApplet
-    properties:
-      prop1: hello
-      prop2: 123
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/applet-js/test/test2.yaml b/packages/@aws-cdk/applet-js/test/test2.yaml
deleted file mode 100644
index 5478b5db6cb26..0000000000000
--- a/packages/@aws-cdk/applet-js/test/test2.yaml
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,13 +0,0 @@
-# applet is loaded from the local ./test-applet.js file
-applets:
-  TestApplet:
-    type: ./test-applet:TestApplet
-    properties:
-      prop1: hello
-      prop2: 123
-      prop3:
-        - hello
-        - this
-        - is
-        - awesome
-        - 12345
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/applet-js/test/test3.yaml b/packages/@aws-cdk/applet-js/test/test3.yaml
deleted file mode 100755
index c5923c94b4559..0000000000000
--- a/packages/@aws-cdk/applet-js/test/test3.yaml
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,6 +0,0 @@
-#!/usr/bin/env cdk-applet-js
-applets:
-  Applet:
-    type: ./test-applet
-    properties:
-      desc: this should be reflected in the template description
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/assert/jest.ts b/packages/@aws-cdk/assert/jest.ts
index 0aaafbd3478b9..a785c0058cb14 100644
--- a/packages/@aws-cdk/assert/jest.ts
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/assert/jest.ts
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
 import { Stack } from "@aws-cdk/cdk";
-import { SynthesizedStack } from "@aws-cdk/cx-api";
+import cxapi = require("@aws-cdk/cx-api");
 import { HaveResourceAssertion, ResourcePart } from "./lib/assertions/have-resource";
 import { MatchStyle, matchTemplate } from "./lib/assertions/match-template";
 import { expect as ourExpect } from './lib/expect';
@@ -23,7 +23,7 @@ declare global {
 
 expect.extend({
   toMatchTemplate(
-    actual: SynthesizedStack | Stack,
+    actual: cxapi.CloudFormationStackArtifact | Stack,
     template: any,
     matchStyle?: MatchStyle) {
 
@@ -44,7 +44,7 @@ expect.extend({
   },
 
   toHaveResource(
-      actual: SynthesizedStack | Stack,
+      actual: cxapi.CloudFormationStackArtifact | Stack,
       resourceType: string,
       properties?: any,
       comparison?: ResourcePart) {
@@ -53,7 +53,7 @@ expect.extend({
     return assertHaveResource(assertion, actual);
   },
   toHaveResourceLike(
-      actual: SynthesizedStack | Stack,
+      actual: cxapi.CloudFormationStackArtifact | Stack,
       resourceType: string,
       properties?: any,
       comparison?: ResourcePart) {
@@ -63,7 +63,7 @@ expect.extend({
   }
 });
 
-function assertHaveResource(assertion: HaveResourceAssertion, actual: SynthesizedStack | Stack) {
+function assertHaveResource(assertion: HaveResourceAssertion, actual: cxapi.CloudFormationStackArtifact | Stack) {
   const inspector = ourExpect(actual);
   const pass = assertion.assertUsing(inspector);
   if (pass) {
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/assert/lib/expect.ts b/packages/@aws-cdk/assert/lib/expect.ts
index 9fca81ff8e2f3..fea0be7a87995 100644
--- a/packages/@aws-cdk/assert/lib/expect.ts
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/assert/lib/expect.ts
@@ -1,44 +1,10 @@
 import cdk = require('@aws-cdk/cdk');
-import { ConstructNode, ConstructOrder } from '@aws-cdk/cdk';
 import api = require('@aws-cdk/cx-api');
 import { StackInspector } from './inspector';
 import { SynthUtils } from './synth-utils';
 
-export function expect(stack: api.SynthesizedStack | cdk.Stack, skipValidation = false): StackInspector {
-  // Can't use 'instanceof' here, that breaks if we have multiple copies
-  // of this library.
-  let sstack: api.SynthesizedStack;
-
-  if (cdk.Stack.isStack(stack)) {
-    const session = SynthUtils.synthesize(stack, {
-      skipValidation
-    });
-
-    sstack = {
-      name: stack.name,
-      template: SynthUtils.templateForStackName(session, stack.name),
-      metadata: collectStackMetadata(stack.node),
-      environment: {
-        name: 'test',
-        account: 'test',
-        region: 'test'
-      }
-    };
-  } else {
-    sstack = stack;
-  }
-
-  return new StackInspector(sstack);
-}
-
-function collectStackMetadata(root: ConstructNode): api.StackMetadata {
-  const result: api.StackMetadata = {};
-  for (const construct of root.findAll(ConstructOrder.PreOrder)) {
-    const path = `/${root.id}/${construct.node.path}`;
-    for (const entry of construct.node.metadata) {
-      result[path] = result[path] || [];
-      result[path].push(root.resolve(entry));
-    }
-  }
-  return result;
+export function expect(stack: api.CloudFormationStackArtifact | cdk.Stack, skipValidation = false): StackInspector {
+  // if this is already a synthesized stack, then just inspect it.
+  const artifact = stack instanceof api.CloudFormationStackArtifact ? stack : SynthUtils.synthesize(stack, { skipValidation });
+  return new StackInspector(artifact);
 }
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/assert/lib/inspector.ts b/packages/@aws-cdk/assert/lib/inspector.ts
index d5e3315bc80ed..ee446ab95b28a 100644
--- a/packages/@aws-cdk/assert/lib/inspector.ts
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/assert/lib/inspector.ts
@@ -27,7 +27,7 @@ export abstract class Inspector {
 }
 
 export class StackInspector extends Inspector {
-  constructor(public readonly stack: api.SynthesizedStack) {
+  constructor(public readonly stack: api.CloudFormationStackArtifact) {
     super();
   }
 
@@ -46,7 +46,7 @@ export class StackInspector extends Inspector {
 }
 
 export class StackPathInspector extends Inspector {
-  constructor(public readonly stack: api.SynthesizedStack, public readonly path: string) {
+  constructor(public readonly stack: api.CloudFormationStackArtifact, public readonly path: string) {
     super();
   }
 
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/assert/lib/synth-utils.ts b/packages/@aws-cdk/assert/lib/synth-utils.ts
index 5d6b689d255fa..f8575848ce53a 100644
--- a/packages/@aws-cdk/assert/lib/synth-utils.ts
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/assert/lib/synth-utils.ts
@@ -1,22 +1,29 @@
-import { ISynthesisSession, Stack, SynthesisOptions, Synthesizer } from '@aws-cdk/cdk';
+import { Stack, SynthesisOptions, Synthesizer } from '@aws-cdk/cdk';
+import cxapi = require('@aws-cdk/cx-api');
 
 export class SynthUtils {
-  public static toCloudFormation(stack: Stack, options: SynthesisOptions = { }): any {
-    const session = this.synthesize(stack, options);
-    return this.templateForStackName(session, stack.name);
-  }
-
-  public static templateForStackName(session: ISynthesisSession, stackName: string): any {
-    return session.store.readJson(session.getArtifact(stackName).properties!.templateFile);
+  /**
+   * Synthesizes the stack and returns a `CloudFormationStackArtifact` which can be inspected.
+   */
+  public static synthesize(stack: Stack, options: SynthesisOptions = { }): cxapi.CloudFormationStackArtifact {
+    // always synthesize against the root (be it an App or whatever) so all artifacts will be included
+    const synth = new Synthesizer();
+    const assembly = synth.synthesize(stack.node.root, options);
+    return assembly.getStack(stack.name);
   }
 
-  public static synthesize(stack: Stack, options: SynthesisOptions): ISynthesisSession {
-    const synth = new Synthesizer();
-    return synth.synthesize(stack, options);
+  /**
+   * Synthesizes the stack and returns the resulting CloudFormation template.
+   */
+  public static toCloudFormation(stack: Stack, options: SynthesisOptions = { }): any {
+    return this.synthesize(stack, options).template;
   }
 
+  /**
+   * @returns Returns a subset of the synthesized CloudFormation template (only specific resource types).
+   */
   public static subset(stack: Stack, options: SubsetOptions): any {
-    const template = SynthUtils.toCloudFormation(stack);
+    const template = SynthUtils.synthesize(stack).template;
     if (template.Resources) {
       for (const [key, resource] of Object.entries(template.Resources)) {
         if (options.resourceTypes && !options.resourceTypes.includes((resource as any).Type)) {
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/assert/test/test.assertions.ts b/packages/@aws-cdk/assert/test/test.assertions.ts
index c59a96114e6e0..755cf07b912fe 100644
--- a/packages/@aws-cdk/assert/test/test.assertions.ts
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/assert/test/test.assertions.ts
@@ -18,8 +18,7 @@ passingExample('expect non-synthesized stack at <some path> to have <some type>'
   const resourceType = 'Test::Resource';
   const stack = new cdk.Stack();
   new TestResource(stack, 'TestResource', { type: resourceType });
-  // '//' because the stack has no name, which leads to an empty path entry here.
-  expect(stack).at('//TestResource').to(haveType(resourceType));
+  expect(stack).at('/TestResource').to(haveType(resourceType));
 });
 passingExample('expect <synthStack> at <some path> *not* to have <some type>', () => {
   const resourceType = 'Test::Resource';
@@ -205,11 +204,13 @@ function failingExample(title: string, cb: (test: Test) => void) {
   };
 }
 
-function synthesizedStack(fn: (stack: cdk.Stack) => void): cx.SynthesizedStack {
+function synthesizedStack(fn: (stack: cdk.Stack) => void): cx.CloudFormationStackArtifact {
   const app = new cdk.App();
   const stack = new cdk.Stack(app, 'TestStack');
   fn(stack);
-  return app.synthesizeStack(stack.name);
+
+  const assembly = app.run();
+  return assembly.getStack(stack.name);
 }
 
 interface TestResourceProps extends cdk.CfnResourceProps {
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/assert/test/test.have-resource.ts b/packages/@aws-cdk/assert/test/test.have-resource.ts
index 888a8a3147b3d..75153eb780ed0 100644
--- a/packages/@aws-cdk/assert/test/test.have-resource.ts
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/assert/test/test.have-resource.ts
@@ -1,4 +1,7 @@
+import cxapi = require('@aws-cdk/cx-api');
+import { writeFileSync } from 'fs';
 import { Test } from 'nodeunit';
+import { join } from 'path';
 import { expect, haveResource } from '../lib/index';
 
 export = {
@@ -89,15 +92,16 @@ export = {
   },
 };
 
-function mkStack(template: any) {
-  return {
-    name: 'test',
-    template,
-    metadata: {},
-    environment: {
-      name: 'test',
-      account: 'test',
-      region: 'test'
+function mkStack(template: any): cxapi.CloudFormationStackArtifact {
+  const assembly = new cxapi.CloudAssemblyBuilder();
+  assembly.addArtifact('test', {
+    type: cxapi.ArtifactType.AwsCloudFormationStack,
+    environment: cxapi.EnvironmentUtils.format('123456789', 'us-west-2'),
+    properties: {
+      templateFile: 'template.json'
     }
-  };
+  });
+
+  writeFileSync(join(assembly.outdir, 'template.json'), JSON.stringify(template));
+  return assembly.build().getStack('test');
 }
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/assert/test/test.synth-utils.ts b/packages/@aws-cdk/assert/test/test.synth-utils.ts
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000..473ac58c5d32c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/assert/test/test.synth-utils.ts
@@ -0,0 +1,18 @@
+import { App, Stack } from '@aws-cdk/cdk';
+import { Test } from 'nodeunit';
+import { SynthUtils } from '../lib';
+
+export = {
+  'SynthUtils.synthesize() is always executed against the root of the tree'(test: Test) {
+    // GIVEN
+    const root = new App();
+    const stack1 = new Stack(root, 'stack1');
+    const stack2 = new Stack(root, 'stack2');
+    stack2.addDependency(stack1);
+
+    // THEN
+    // this would have failed if we didn't synthesize at the root because 'stack1' would not be emitted
+    SynthUtils.synthesize(stack2);
+    test.done();
+  }
+};
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/assets-docker/test/test.image-asset.ts b/packages/@aws-cdk/assets-docker/test/test.image-asset.ts
index 869b596bf1421..e77a9fc1083c9 100644
--- a/packages/@aws-cdk/assets-docker/test/test.image-asset.ts
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/assets-docker/test/test.image-asset.ts
@@ -1,10 +1,8 @@
 import { expect, haveResource, SynthUtils } from '@aws-cdk/assert';
 import iam = require('@aws-cdk/aws-iam');
 import cdk = require('@aws-cdk/cdk');
-import cxapi = require('@aws-cdk/cx-api');
 import fs = require('fs');
 import { Test } from 'nodeunit';
-import os = require('os');
 import path = require('path');
 import { DockerImageAsset } from '../lib';
 
@@ -21,7 +19,7 @@ export = {
     });
 
     // THEN
-    const template = SynthUtils.toCloudFormation(stack);
+    const template = SynthUtils.synthesize(stack).template;
 
     test.deepEqual(template.Parameters.ImageImageName5E684353, {
       Type: 'String',
@@ -167,27 +165,17 @@ export = {
   },
 
   'docker directory is staged if asset staging is enabled'(test: Test) {
-    const workdir = mkdtempSync();
-    process.chdir(workdir);
-
-    const app = new cdk.App({
-      context: { [cxapi.ASSET_STAGING_DIR_CONTEXT]: '.stage-me' }
-    });
-
+    const app = new cdk.App();
     const stack = new cdk.Stack(app, 'stack');
 
     new DockerImageAsset(stack, 'MyAsset', {
       directory: path.join(__dirname, 'demo-image')
     });
 
-    app.run();
+    const session = app.run();
 
-    test.ok(fs.existsSync('.stage-me/1a17a141505ac69144931fe263d130f4612251caa4bbbdaf68a44ed0f405439c/Dockerfile'));
-    test.ok(fs.existsSync('.stage-me/1a17a141505ac69144931fe263d130f4612251caa4bbbdaf68a44ed0f405439c/index.py'));
+    test.ok(fs.existsSync(path.join(session.directory, 'asset.1a17a141505ac69144931fe263d130f4612251caa4bbbdaf68a44ed0f405439c/Dockerfile')));
+    test.ok(fs.existsSync(path.join(session.directory, 'asset.1a17a141505ac69144931fe263d130f4612251caa4bbbdaf68a44ed0f405439c/index.py')));
     test.done();
   }
 };
-
-function mkdtempSync() {
-  return fs.mkdtempSync(path.join(os.tmpdir(), 'test.assets'));
-}
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/assets/lib/staging.ts b/packages/@aws-cdk/assets/lib/staging.ts
index 05e465acb4227..173fe73374fa7 100644
--- a/packages/@aws-cdk/assets/lib/staging.ts
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/assets/lib/staging.ts
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-import { Construct, Token } from '@aws-cdk/cdk';
+import { Construct } from '@aws-cdk/cdk';
 import cxapi = require('@aws-cdk/cx-api');
 import fs = require('fs');
 import path = require('path');
@@ -48,13 +48,7 @@ export class Staging extends Construct {
 
   private readonly copyOptions: CopyOptions;
 
-  /**
-   * The asset path after "prepare" is called.
-   *
-   * If staging is disabled, this will just be the original path.
-   * If staging is enabled it will be the staged path.
-   */
-  private _preparedAssetPath?: string;
+  private readonly relativePath?: string;
 
   constructor(scope: Construct, id: string, props: StagingProps) {
     super(scope, id);
@@ -62,23 +56,22 @@ export class Staging extends Construct {
     this.sourcePath = props.sourcePath;
     this.copyOptions = props;
     this.sourceHash = fingerprint(this.sourcePath, props);
-    this.stagedPath = new Token(() => this._preparedAssetPath).toString();
-  }
 
-  protected prepare() {
-    const stagingDir = this.node.getContext(cxapi.ASSET_STAGING_DIR_CONTEXT);
-    if (!stagingDir) {
-      this._preparedAssetPath = this.sourcePath;
-      return;
+    const stagingDisabled = this.node.getContext(cxapi.DISABLE_ASSET_STAGING_CONTEXT);
+    if (stagingDisabled) {
+      this.stagedPath = this.sourcePath;
+    } else {
+      this.relativePath = `asset.` + this.sourceHash + path.extname(this.sourcePath);
+      this.stagedPath = this.relativePath; // always relative to outdir
     }
+  }
 
-    if (!fs.existsSync(stagingDir)) {
-      fs.mkdirSync(stagingDir);
+  protected synthesize(session: cxapi.CloudAssemblyBuilder) {
+    if (!this.relativePath) {
+      return;
     }
 
-    const targetPath = path.join(stagingDir, this.sourceHash + path.extname(this.sourcePath));
-
-    this._preparedAssetPath = targetPath;
+    const targetPath = path.join(session.outdir, this.relativePath);
 
     // asset already staged
     if (fs.existsSync(targetPath)) {
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/assets/test/test.asset.ts b/packages/@aws-cdk/assets/test/test.asset.ts
index bb92463bd7454..53a3a42020d5c 100644
--- a/packages/@aws-cdk/assets/test/test.asset.ts
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/assets/test/test.asset.ts
@@ -13,7 +13,12 @@ const SAMPLE_ASSET_DIR = path.join(__dirname, 'sample-asset-directory');
 
 export = {
   'simple use case'(test: Test)  {
-    const stack = new cdk.Stack();
+    const app = new cdk.App({
+      context: {
+        [cxapi.DISABLE_ASSET_STAGING_CONTEXT]: 'true'
+      }
+    });
+    const stack = new cdk.Stack(app, 'MyStack');
     const asset = new ZipDirectoryAsset(stack, 'MyAsset', {
       path: SAMPLE_ASSET_DIR
     });
@@ -24,11 +29,11 @@ export = {
     test.ok(entry, 'found metadata entry');
 
     // verify that now the template contains parameters for this asset
-    const template = SynthUtils.toCloudFormation(stack);
+    const session = app.run();
 
     test.deepEqual(stack.node.resolve(entry!.data), {
       path: SAMPLE_ASSET_DIR,
-      id: 'MyAsset',
+      id: 'MyStackMyAssetBDDF29E3',
       packaging: 'zip',
       sourceHash: '6b84b87243a4a01c592d78e1fd3855c4bfef39328cd0a450cc97e81717fea2a2',
       s3BucketParameter: 'MyAssetS3Bucket68C9B344',
@@ -36,6 +41,7 @@ export = {
       artifactHashParameter: 'MyAssetArtifactHashF518BDDE',
     });
 
+    const template = JSON.parse(fs.readFileSync(path.join(session.directory, 'MyStack.template.json'), 'utf-8'));
     test.equal(template.Parameters.MyAssetS3Bucket68C9B344.Type, 'String');
     test.equal(template.Parameters.MyAssetS3VersionKey68E1A45D.Type, 'String');
 
@@ -51,10 +57,9 @@ export = {
       path: dirPath
     });
 
-    const synth = app.synthesizeStack(stack.name);
-
+    const synth = app.run().getStack(stack.name);
     test.deepEqual(synth.metadata['/my-stack/MyAsset'][0].data, {
-      path: dirPath,
+      path: 'asset.6b84b87243a4a01c592d78e1fd3855c4bfef39328cd0a450cc97e81717fea2a2',
       id: "mystackMyAssetD6B1B593",
       packaging: "zip",
       sourceHash: '6b84b87243a4a01c592d78e1fd3855c4bfef39328cd0a450cc97e81717fea2a2',
@@ -74,10 +79,10 @@ export = {
     test.ok(entry, 'found metadata entry');
 
     // synthesize first so "prepare" is called
-    const template = SynthUtils.toCloudFormation(stack);
+    const template = SynthUtils.synthesize(stack).template;
 
     test.deepEqual(stack.node.resolve(entry!.data), {
-      path: filePath,
+      path: 'asset.78add9eaf468dfa2191da44a7da92a21baba4c686cf6053d772556768ef21197.txt',
       packaging: 'file',
       id: 'MyAsset',
       sourceHash: '78add9eaf468dfa2191da44a7da92a21baba4c686cf6053d772556768ef21197',
@@ -195,7 +200,7 @@ export = {
     // THEN
     expect(stack).to(haveResource('My::Resource::Type', {
       Metadata: {
-        "aws:asset:path": location,
+        "aws:asset:path": 'asset.6b84b87243a4a01c592d78e1fd3855c4bfef39328cd0a450cc97e81717fea2a2',
         "aws:asset:property": "PropName"
       }
     }, ResourcePart.CompleteDefinition));
@@ -225,14 +230,12 @@ export = {
 
   'staging': {
 
-    'copy file assets under .assets/${fingerprint}.ext'(test: Test) {
+    'copy file assets under <outdir>/${fingerprint}.ext'(test: Test) {
       const tempdir = mkdtempSync();
       process.chdir(tempdir); // change current directory to somewhere in /tmp
 
       // GIVEN
-      const app = new App({
-        context: { [cxapi.ASSET_STAGING_DIR_CONTEXT]: '.assets' }
-      });
+      const app = new App({ outdir: tempdir });
       const stack = new Stack(app, 'stack');
 
       // WHEN
@@ -246,9 +249,8 @@ export = {
 
       // THEN
       app.run();
-      test.ok(fs.existsSync(path.join(tempdir, '.assets')));
-      test.ok(fs.existsSync(path.join(tempdir, '.assets', 'a7a79cdf84b802ea8b198059ff899cffc095a1b9606e919f98e05bf80779756b.zip')));
-      fs.readdirSync(path.join(tempdir, '.assets'));
+      test.ok(fs.existsSync(tempdir));
+      test.ok(fs.existsSync(path.join(tempdir, 'asset.a7a79cdf84b802ea8b198059ff899cffc095a1b9606e919f98e05bf80779756b.zip')));
       test.done();
     },
 
@@ -257,9 +259,7 @@ export = {
       process.chdir(tempdir); // change current directory to somewhere in /tmp
 
       // GIVEN
-      const app = new App({
-        context: { [cxapi.ASSET_STAGING_DIR_CONTEXT]: '.assets' }
-      });
+      const app = new App({ outdir: tempdir });
       const stack = new Stack(app, 'stack');
 
       // WHEN
@@ -269,11 +269,11 @@ export = {
 
       // THEN
       app.run();
-      test.ok(fs.existsSync(path.join(tempdir, '.assets')));
-      const hash = '6b84b87243a4a01c592d78e1fd3855c4bfef39328cd0a450cc97e81717fea2a2';
-      test.ok(fs.existsSync(path.join(tempdir, '.assets', hash, 'sample-asset-file.txt')));
-      test.ok(fs.existsSync(path.join(tempdir, '.assets', hash, 'sample-jar-asset.jar')));
-      fs.readdirSync(path.join(tempdir, '.assets'));
+      test.ok(fs.existsSync(tempdir));
+      const hash = 'asset.6b84b87243a4a01c592d78e1fd3855c4bfef39328cd0a450cc97e81717fea2a2';
+      test.ok(fs.existsSync(path.join(tempdir, hash, 'sample-asset-file.txt')));
+      test.ok(fs.existsSync(path.join(tempdir, hash, 'sample-jar-asset.jar')));
+      fs.readdirSync(tempdir);
       test.done();
     },
 
@@ -284,8 +284,8 @@ export = {
 
       const staging = '.my-awesome-staging-directory';
       const app = new App({
+        outdir: staging,
         context: {
-          [cxapi.ASSET_STAGING_DIR_CONTEXT]: staging,
           [cxapi.ASSET_RESOURCE_METADATA_ENABLED_CONTEXT]: 'true',
         }
       });
@@ -298,22 +298,21 @@ export = {
       // WHEN
       asset.addResourceMetadata(resource, 'PropName');
 
-      const session = app.run();
-      const template = SynthUtils.templateForStackName(session, stack.name);
-
+      const template = SynthUtils.synthesize(stack).template;
       test.deepEqual(template.Resources.MyResource.Metadata, {
-        "aws:asset:path": `.my-awesome-staging-directory/6b84b87243a4a01c592d78e1fd3855c4bfef39328cd0a450cc97e81717fea2a2`,
+        "aws:asset:path": `asset.6b84b87243a4a01c592d78e1fd3855c4bfef39328cd0a450cc97e81717fea2a2`,
         "aws:asset:property": "PropName"
       });
       test.done();
     },
 
-    'if staging directory is absolute, asset path is absolute'(test: Test) {
+    'if staging is disabled, asset path is absolute'(test: Test) {
       // GIVEN
       const staging = path.resolve(mkdtempSync());
       const app = new App({
+        outdir: staging,
         context: {
-          [cxapi.ASSET_STAGING_DIR_CONTEXT]: staging,
+          [cxapi.DISABLE_ASSET_STAGING_CONTEXT]: 'true',
           [cxapi.ASSET_RESOURCE_METADATA_ENABLED_CONTEXT]: 'true',
         }
       });
@@ -326,11 +325,9 @@ export = {
       // WHEN
       asset.addResourceMetadata(resource, 'PropName');
 
-      const session = app.run();
-      const template = SynthUtils.templateForStackName(session, stack.name);
-
+      const template = SynthUtils.synthesize(stack).template;
       test.deepEqual(template.Resources.MyResource.Metadata, {
-        "aws:asset:path": `${staging}/6b84b87243a4a01c592d78e1fd3855c4bfef39328cd0a450cc97e81717fea2a2`,
+        "aws:asset:path": SAMPLE_ASSET_DIR,
         "aws:asset:property": "PropName"
       });
       test.done();
@@ -338,27 +335,16 @@ export = {
 
     'cdk metadata points to staged asset'(test: Test) {
       // GIVEN
-      const tempdir = mkdtempSync();
-      process.chdir(tempdir); // change current directory to somewhere in /tmp
-
-      const staging = '.stageme';
-
-      const app = new App({
-        context: {
-          [cxapi.ASSET_STAGING_DIR_CONTEXT]: staging,
-        }
-      });
-
+      const app = new App();
       const stack = new Stack(app, 'stack');
-
       new ZipDirectoryAsset(stack, 'MyAsset', { path: SAMPLE_ASSET_DIR });
 
       // WHEN
       const session = app.run();
-      const artifact = session.getArtifact(stack.name);
+      const artifact = session.getStack(stack.name);
 
-      const md = Object.values(artifact.metadata || {})[0][0].data;
-      test.deepEqual(md.path, '.stageme/6b84b87243a4a01c592d78e1fd3855c4bfef39328cd0a450cc97e81717fea2a2');
+      const md = Object.values(artifact.metadata)[0][0].data;
+      test.deepEqual(md.path, 'asset.6b84b87243a4a01c592d78e1fd3855c4bfef39328cd0a450cc97e81717fea2a2');
       test.done();
     }
 
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-apigateway/test/test.deployment.ts b/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-apigateway/test/test.deployment.ts
index 13087303a8ba9..3f138b47c2369 100644
--- a/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-apigateway/test/test.deployment.ts
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-apigateway/test/test.deployment.ts
@@ -153,7 +153,7 @@ export = {
 
     function synthesize() {
       stack.node.prepareTree();
-      return SynthUtils.toCloudFormation(stack);
+      return SynthUtils.synthesize(stack).template;
     }
   },
 
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-apigateway/test/test.restapi.ts b/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-apigateway/test/test.restapi.ts
index 2b8fbe011f7d6..31b1714e697b2 100644
--- a/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-apigateway/test/test.restapi.ts
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-apigateway/test/test.restapi.ts
@@ -131,7 +131,7 @@ export = {
     api.root.addResource('bar').addResource('goo');
 
     // THEN
-    test.throws(() => app.synthesizeStack(stack.name), /The REST API doesn't contain any methods/);
+    test.throws(() => app.run(), /The REST API doesn't contain any methods/);
     test.done();
   },
 
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-applicationautoscaling/test/test.step-scaling-policy.ts b/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-applicationautoscaling/test/test.step-scaling-policy.ts
index 1455fa0e84689..425cf7bb29e2a 100644
--- a/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-applicationautoscaling/test/test.step-scaling-policy.ts
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-applicationautoscaling/test/test.step-scaling-policy.ts
@@ -168,7 +168,7 @@ function setupStepScaling(intervals: appscaling.ScalingInterval[]) {
     scalingSteps: intervals
   });
 
-  return new ScalingStackTemplate(SynthUtils.toCloudFormation(stack));
+  return new ScalingStackTemplate(SynthUtils.synthesize(stack).template);
 }
 
 class ScalingStackTemplate {
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-cloudtrail/test/test.cloudtrail.ts b/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-cloudtrail/test/test.cloudtrail.ts
index 605cc9f721033..ade48de2167f9 100644
--- a/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-cloudtrail/test/test.cloudtrail.ts
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-cloudtrail/test/test.cloudtrail.ts
@@ -67,7 +67,7 @@ export = {
       expect(stack).to(haveResource("AWS::S3::Bucket"));
       expect(stack).to(haveResource("AWS::S3::BucketPolicy", ExpectedBucketPolicyProperties));
       expect(stack).to(not(haveResource("AWS::Logs::LogGroup")));
-      const trail: any = SynthUtils.toCloudFormation(stack).Resources.MyAmazingCloudTrail54516E8D;
+      const trail: any = SynthUtils.synthesize(stack).template.Resources.MyAmazingCloudTrail54516E8D;
       test.deepEqual(trail.DependsOn, ['MyAmazingCloudTrailS3Policy39C120B0']);
       test.done();
     },
@@ -98,7 +98,7 @@ export = {
           PolicyName: logsRolePolicyName,
           Roles: [{ Ref: 'MyAmazingCloudTrailLogsRoleF2CCF977' }],
         }));
-        const trail: any = SynthUtils.toCloudFormation(stack).Resources.MyAmazingCloudTrail54516E8D;
+        const trail: any = SynthUtils.synthesize(stack).template.Resources.MyAmazingCloudTrail54516E8D;
         test.deepEqual(trail.DependsOn, [logsRolePolicyName, logsRoleName, 'MyAmazingCloudTrailS3Policy39C120B0']);
         test.done();
       },
@@ -117,7 +117,7 @@ export = {
         expect(stack).to(haveResource("AWS::Logs::LogGroup", {
           RetentionInDays: 7
         }));
-        const trail: any = SynthUtils.toCloudFormation(stack).Resources.MyAmazingCloudTrail54516E8D;
+        const trail: any = SynthUtils.synthesize(stack).template.Resources.MyAmazingCloudTrail54516E8D;
         test.deepEqual(trail.DependsOn, [logsRolePolicyName, logsRoleName, 'MyAmazingCloudTrailS3Policy39C120B0']);
         test.done();
       },
@@ -135,7 +135,7 @@ export = {
         expect(stack).to(not(haveResource("AWS::Logs::LogGroup")));
         expect(stack).to(not(haveResource("AWS::IAM::Role")));
 
-        const trail: any = SynthUtils.toCloudFormation(stack).Resources.MyAmazingCloudTrail54516E8D;
+        const trail: any = SynthUtils.synthesize(stack).template.Resources.MyAmazingCloudTrail54516E8D;
         test.equals(trail.Properties.EventSelectors.length, 1);
         const selector = trail.Properties.EventSelectors[0];
         test.equals(selector.ReadWriteType, null, "Expected selector read write type to be undefined");
@@ -161,7 +161,7 @@ export = {
         expect(stack).to(not(haveResource("AWS::Logs::LogGroup")));
         expect(stack).to(not(haveResource("AWS::IAM::Role")));
 
-        const trail: any = SynthUtils.toCloudFormation(stack).Resources.MyAmazingCloudTrail54516E8D;
+        const trail: any = SynthUtils.synthesize(stack).template.Resources.MyAmazingCloudTrail54516E8D;
         test.equals(trail.Properties.EventSelectors.length, 1);
         const selector = trail.Properties.EventSelectors[0];
         test.equals(selector.ReadWriteType, "ReadOnly", "Expected selector read write type to be Read");
@@ -180,7 +180,7 @@ export = {
 
         new Trail(stack, 'MyAmazingCloudTrail', { managementEvents: ReadWriteType.WriteOnly });
 
-        const trail: any = SynthUtils.toCloudFormation(stack).Resources.MyAmazingCloudTrail54516E8D;
+        const trail: any = SynthUtils.synthesize(stack).template.Resources.MyAmazingCloudTrail54516E8D;
         test.equals(trail.Properties.EventSelectors.length, 1);
         const selector = trail.Properties.EventSelectors[0];
         test.equals(selector.ReadWriteType, "WriteOnly", "Expected selector read write type to be All");
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-codecommit/test/test.codecommit.ts b/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-codecommit/test/test.codecommit.ts
index f691403635f84..711043a8e2ab5 100644
--- a/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-codecommit/test/test.codecommit.ts
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-codecommit/test/test.codecommit.ts
@@ -1,50 +1,49 @@
-import { App, Stack } from '@aws-cdk/cdk';
+import { expect } from '@aws-cdk/assert';
+import { Stack } from '@aws-cdk/cdk';
 import { Test } from 'nodeunit';
 import { Repository, RepositoryProps } from '../lib';
 
 export = {
   'CodeCommit Repositories': {
     'add an SNS trigger to repository'(test: Test) {
-      const app = new TestApp();
+      const stack = new Stack();
 
       const props: RepositoryProps = {
-        repositoryName:  'MyRepository'
+        repositoryName: 'MyRepository'
       };
 
       const snsArn = 'arn:aws:sns:*:123456789012:my_topic';
 
-      new Repository(app.stack, 'MyRepository', props).notify(snsArn);
-      const template = app.synthesizeTemplate();
+      new Repository(stack, 'MyRepository', props).notify(snsArn);
 
-      test.deepEqual(template, {
+      expect(stack).toMatch({
         Resources: {
           MyRepository4C4BD5FC: {
             Type: "AWS::CodeCommit::Repository",
             Properties: {
-            RepositoryName: "MyRepository",
-            Triggers: [
-              {
-              Events: [
-                "all"
-              ],
-              DestinationArn: "arn:aws:sns:*:123456789012:my_topic",
-              Name: "MyStack/MyRepository/arn:aws:sns:*:123456789012:my_topic"
-              }
-            ]
+              RepositoryName: "MyRepository",
+              Triggers: [
+                {
+                  Events: [
+                    "all"
+                  ],
+                  DestinationArn: "arn:aws:sns:*:123456789012:my_topic",
+                  Name: "MyRepository/arn:aws:sns:*:123456789012:my_topic"
+                }
+              ]
             }
           }
-          }
+        }
       });
 
       test.done();
     },
 
     'fails when triggers have duplicate names'(test: Test) {
-      const app = new TestApp();
+      const stack = new Stack();
 
       const props = { repositoryName: 'MyRepository' };
-      const myRepository = new Repository(app.stack, 'MyRepository', props)
-      .notify('myTrigger');
+      const myRepository = new Repository(stack, 'MyRepository', props).notify('myTrigger');
 
       test.throws(() => myRepository.notify('myTrigger'));
 
@@ -75,7 +74,7 @@ export = {
 
       // THEN
       test.deepEqual(repo.node.resolve(repo.repositoryArn), {
-        'Fn::Join': [ '', [
+        'Fn::Join': ['', [
           'arn:',
           { Ref: 'AWS::Partition' },
           ':codecommit:',
@@ -91,13 +90,3 @@ export = {
     },
   },
 };
-
-class TestApp {
-  private readonly app = new App();
-  // tslint:disable-next-line:member-ordering
-  public readonly stack: Stack = new Stack(this.app, 'MyStack');
-
-  public synthesizeTemplate() {
-    return this.app.synthesizeStack(this.stack.name).template;
-  }
-}
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-eks/test/test.cluster.ts b/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-eks/test/test.cluster.ts
index 59ada983faa02..5a212d571a77d 100644
--- a/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-eks/test/test.cluster.ts
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-eks/test/test.cluster.ts
@@ -8,7 +8,7 @@ import eks = require('../lib');
 export = {
   'a default cluster spans all subnets'(test: Test) {
     // GIVEN
-    const [stack, vpc] = testFixture();
+    const { stack, vpc } = testFixture();
 
     // WHEN
     new eks.Cluster(stack, 'Cluster', { vpc });
@@ -32,7 +32,7 @@ export = {
 
   'creating a cluster tags the private VPC subnets'(test: Test) {
     // GIVEN
-    const [stack, vpc] = testFixture();
+    const { stack, vpc } = testFixture();
 
     // WHEN
     new eks.Cluster(stack, 'Cluster', { vpc });
@@ -40,7 +40,7 @@ export = {
     // THEN
     expect(stack).to(haveResource('AWS::EC2::Subnet', {
       Tags: [
-        { Key: "Name", Value: "VPC/PrivateSubnet1" },
+        { Key: "Name", Value: "Stack/VPC/PrivateSubnet1" },
         { Key: "aws-cdk:subnet-name", Value: "Private" },
         { Key: "aws-cdk:subnet-type", Value: "Private" },
         { Key: "kubernetes.io/role/internal-elb", Value: "1" }
@@ -52,7 +52,7 @@ export = {
 
   'adding capacity creates an ASG with tags'(test: Test) {
     // GIVEN
-    const [stack, vpc] = testFixture();
+    const { stack, vpc } = testFixture();
     const cluster = new eks.Cluster(stack, 'Cluster', { vpc });
 
     // WHEN
@@ -66,7 +66,7 @@ export = {
         {
           Key: "Name",
           PropagateAtLaunch: true,
-          Value: "Cluster/Default"
+          Value: "Stack/Cluster/Default"
         },
         {
           Key: { "Fn::Join": [ "", [ "kubernetes.io/cluster/", { Ref: "ClusterEB0386A7" } ] ] },
@@ -81,7 +81,7 @@ export = {
 
   'adding capacity correctly deduces maxPods and adds userdata'(test: Test) {
     // GIVEN
-    const [stack, vpc] = testFixture();
+    const { stack, vpc } = testFixture();
     const cluster = new eks.Cluster(stack, 'Cluster', { vpc });
 
     // WHEN
@@ -110,8 +110,8 @@ export = {
 
   'exercise export/import'(test: Test) {
     // GIVEN
-    const [stack1, vpc] = testFixture();
-    const stack2 = new cdk.Stack(undefined, 'stack2', { env: { region: 'us-east-1' } });
+    const { stack: stack1, vpc, app } = testFixture();
+    const stack2 = new cdk.Stack(app, 'stack2', { env: { region: 'us-east-1' } });
     const cluster = new eks.Cluster(stack1, 'Cluster', { vpc });
 
     // WHEN
@@ -141,9 +141,10 @@ export = {
   },
 };
 
-function testFixture(): [cdk.Stack, ec2.Vpc] {
-  const stack = new cdk.Stack(undefined, 'Stack', { env: { region: 'us-east-1' }});
+function testFixture() {
+  const app = new cdk.App();
+  const stack = new cdk.Stack(app, 'Stack', { env: { region: 'us-east-1' }});
   const vpc = new ec2.Vpc(stack, 'VPC');
 
-  return [stack, vpc];
+  return { stack, vpc, app };
 }
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-elasticloadbalancingv2/test/alb/test.security-groups.ts b/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-elasticloadbalancingv2/test/alb/test.security-groups.ts
index 20ddb56cff47d..98b74d3a93875 100644
--- a/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-elasticloadbalancingv2/test/alb/test.security-groups.ts
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-elasticloadbalancingv2/test/alb/test.security-groups.ts
@@ -101,8 +101,8 @@ export = {
 
   'SG peering works on exported/imported load balancer'(test: Test) {
     // GIVEN
-    const fixture = new TestFixture();
-    const stack2 = new cdk.Stack();
+    const fixture = new TestFixture(false);
+    const stack2 = new cdk.Stack(fixture.app, 'stack2');
     const vpc2 = new ec2.Vpc(stack2, 'VPC');
     const group = new elbv2.ApplicationTargetGroup(stack2, 'TargetGroup', {
       // We're assuming the 2nd VPC is peered to the 1st, or something.
@@ -128,7 +128,7 @@ export = {
   'SG peering works on exported/imported listener'(test: Test) {
     // GIVEN
     const fixture = new TestFixture();
-    const stack2 = new cdk.Stack();
+    const stack2 = new cdk.Stack(fixture.app, 'stack2');
     const vpc2 = new ec2.Vpc(stack2, 'VPC');
     const group = new elbv2.ApplicationTargetGroup(stack2, 'TargetGroup', {
       // We're assuming the 2nd VPC is peered to the 1st, or something.
@@ -136,6 +136,7 @@ export = {
       port: 8008,
       targets: [new FakeSelfRegisteringTarget(stack2, 'Target', vpc2)],
     });
+    fixture.listener.addTargets('default', { port: 80 });
 
     // WHEN
     const listener2 = elbv2.ApplicationListener.fromApplicationListenerAttributes(stack2, 'YetAnotherListener', {
@@ -237,17 +238,23 @@ function expectSGRules(stack: cdk.Stack, lbGroup: any) {
 }
 
 class TestFixture {
+  public readonly app: cdk.App;
   public readonly stack: cdk.Stack;
   public readonly vpc: ec2.Vpc;
   public readonly lb: elbv2.ApplicationLoadBalancer;
   public readonly listener: elbv2.ApplicationListener;
 
-  constructor() {
-    this.stack = new cdk.Stack();
+  constructor(createListener?: boolean) {
+    this.app = new cdk.App();
+    this.stack = new cdk.Stack(this.app, 'Stack');
     this.vpc = new ec2.Vpc(this.stack, 'VPC', {
       maxAZs: 2
     });
     this.lb = new elbv2.ApplicationLoadBalancer(this.stack, 'LB', { vpc: this.vpc });
-    this.listener = this.lb.addListener('Listener', { port: 80, open: false });
+
+    createListener = createListener === undefined ? true : createListener;
+    if (createListener) {
+      this.listener = this.lb.addListener('Listener', { port: 80, open: false });
+    }
   }
 }
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-events/test/test.rule.ts b/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-events/test/test.rule.ts
index 352bb814d98c5..a03ec7c1ab1ba 100644
--- a/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-events/test/test.rule.ts
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-events/test/test.rule.ts
@@ -97,7 +97,7 @@ export = {
     const app = new cdk.App();
     const stack = new cdk.Stack(app, 'MyStack');
     new Rule(stack, 'Rule');
-    test.throws(() => app.synthesizeStack(stack.name), /Either 'eventPattern' or 'scheduleExpression' must be defined/);
+    test.throws(() => app.run(), /Either 'eventPattern' or 'scheduleExpression' must be defined/);
     test.done();
   },
 
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-glue/test/test.table.ts b/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-glue/test/test.table.ts
index a0c4b7c430797..a2a73d94bb69c 100644
--- a/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-glue/test/test.table.ts
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-glue/test/test.table.ts
@@ -8,12 +8,13 @@ import glue = require('../lib');
 
 export = {
   'unpartitioned JSON table'(test: Test) {
-    const dbStack = new cdk.Stack();
+    const app = new cdk.App();
+    const dbStack = new cdk.Stack(app, 'db');
     const database = new glue.Database(dbStack, 'Database', {
       databaseName: 'database'
     });
 
-    const tableStack = new cdk.Stack();
+    const tableStack = new cdk.Stack(app, 'table');
     const table = new glue.Table(tableStack, 'Table', {
       database,
       tableName: 'table',
@@ -35,7 +36,7 @@ export = {
         Ref: "AWS::AccountId"
       },
       DatabaseName: {
-        "Fn::ImportValue": "Stack:ExportsOutputRefDatabaseB269D8BB88F4B1C4"
+        "Fn::ImportValue": "db:ExportsOutputRefDatabaseB269D8BB88F4B1C4"
       },
       TableInput: {
         Name: "table",
@@ -78,12 +79,13 @@ export = {
   },
 
   'partitioned JSON table'(test: Test) {
-    const dbStack = new cdk.Stack();
+    const app = new cdk.App();
+    const dbStack = new cdk.Stack(app, 'db');
     const database = new glue.Database(dbStack, 'Database', {
       databaseName: 'database'
     });
 
-    const tableStack = new cdk.Stack();
+    const tableStack = new cdk.Stack(app, 'table');
     const table = new glue.Table(tableStack, 'Table', {
       database,
       tableName: 'table',
@@ -106,7 +108,7 @@ export = {
         Ref: "AWS::AccountId"
       },
       DatabaseName: {
-        "Fn::ImportValue": "Stack:ExportsOutputRefDatabaseB269D8BB88F4B1C4"
+        "Fn::ImportValue": "db:ExportsOutputRefDatabaseB269D8BB88F4B1C4"
       },
       TableInput: {
         Name: "table",
@@ -980,8 +982,9 @@ export = {
   },
 
   'explicit s3 bucket and prefix'(test: Test) {
-    const dbStack = new cdk.Stack();
-    const stack = new cdk.Stack();
+    const app = new cdk.App();
+    const dbStack = new cdk.Stack(app, 'db');
+    const stack = new cdk.Stack(app, 'app');
     const bucket = new s3.Bucket(stack, 'ExplicitBucket');
     const database = new glue.Database(dbStack, 'Database', {
       databaseName: 'database'
@@ -1004,7 +1007,7 @@ export = {
         Ref: "AWS::AccountId"
       },
       DatabaseName: {
-        "Fn::ImportValue": "Stack:ExportsOutputRefDatabaseB269D8BB88F4B1C4"
+        "Fn::ImportValue": "db:ExportsOutputRefDatabaseB269D8BB88F4B1C4"
       },
       TableInput: {
         Description: "table generated by CDK",
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-iam/test/test.auto-cross-stack-refs.ts b/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-iam/test/test.auto-cross-stack-refs.ts
index 705e98193ed07..4697f93d81167 100644
--- a/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-iam/test/test.auto-cross-stack-refs.ts
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-iam/test/test.auto-cross-stack-refs.ts
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-import { expect } from '@aws-cdk/assert';
+import { expect, SynthUtils } from '@aws-cdk/assert';
 import cdk = require('@aws-cdk/cdk');
 import { Test } from 'nodeunit';
 import iam = require('../lib');
@@ -6,8 +6,9 @@ import iam = require('../lib');
 export = {
   'automatic exports are created when attributes are referneced across stacks'(test: Test) {
     // GIVEN
-    const stackWithUser = new cdk.Stack();
-    const stackWithGroup = new cdk.Stack();
+    const app = new cdk.App();
+    const stackWithUser = new cdk.Stack(app, 'stack1');
+    const stackWithGroup = new cdk.Stack(app, 'stack2');
     const user = new iam.User(stackWithUser, 'User');
     const group = new iam.Group(stackWithGroup, 'Group');
 
@@ -29,7 +30,7 @@ export = {
         User00B015A1: {
           Type: "AWS::IAM::User",
           Properties: {
-            Groups: [ { "Fn::ImportValue": "Stack:ExportsOutputRefGroupC77FDACD8CF7DD5B" } ]
+            Groups: [ { "Fn::ImportValue": "stack2:ExportsOutputRefGroupC77FDACD8CF7DD5B" } ]
           }
         }
       }
@@ -38,7 +39,7 @@ export = {
       Outputs: {
         ExportsOutputRefGroupC77FDACD8CF7DD5B: {
           Value: { Ref: "GroupC77FDACD" },
-          Export: { Name: "Stack:ExportsOutputRefGroupC77FDACD8CF7DD5B" }
+          Export: { Name: "stack2:ExportsOutputRefGroupC77FDACD8CF7DD5B" }
         }
       },
       Resources: {
@@ -48,5 +49,18 @@ export = {
       }
     });
     test.done();
-  }
+  },
+
+  'cannot reference tokens across apps'(test: Test) {
+    // GIVEN
+    const stack1 = new cdk.Stack();
+    const stack2 = new cdk.Stack();
+    const user = new iam.User(stack1, 'User');
+    const group = new iam.Group(stack2, 'Group');
+    group.addUser(user);
+
+    // THEN
+    test.throws(() => SynthUtils.synthesize(stack1), /Cannot reference across apps/);
+    test.done();
+  },
 };
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-iam/test/test.group.ts b/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-iam/test/test.group.ts
index 4249af4b1b591..d0ff150a69809 100644
--- a/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-iam/test/test.group.ts
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-iam/test/test.group.ts
@@ -1,3 +1,4 @@
+import { expect } from '@aws-cdk/assert';
 import { App, Stack } from '@aws-cdk/cdk';
 import { Test } from 'nodeunit';
 import { Group, User } from '../lib';
@@ -7,9 +8,11 @@ export = {
     const app = new App();
     const stack = new Stack(app, 'MyStack');
     new Group(stack, 'MyGroup');
-    test.deepEqual(app.synthesizeStack(stack.name).template, {
+
+    expect(stack).toMatch({
       Resources: { MyGroupCBA54B1B: { Type: 'AWS::IAM::Group' } }
     });
+
     test.done();
   },
 
@@ -22,7 +25,7 @@ export = {
     user1.addToGroup(group);
     group.addUser(user2);
 
-    test.deepEqual(app.synthesizeStack(stack.name).template, { Resources:
+    expect(stack).toMatch({ Resources:
       { MyGroupCBA54B1B: { Type: 'AWS::IAM::Group' },
         User1E278A736:
          { Type: 'AWS::IAM::User',
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-iam/test/test.policy.ts b/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-iam/test/test.policy.ts
index 344a33198fed2..3d990a834decf 100644
--- a/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-iam/test/test.policy.ts
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-iam/test/test.policy.ts
@@ -1,3 +1,4 @@
+import { expect } from '@aws-cdk/assert';
 import { App, Stack } from '@aws-cdk/cdk';
 import { Test } from 'nodeunit';
 import { Group, Policy, PolicyStatement, Role, ServicePrincipal, User } from '../lib';
@@ -9,7 +10,7 @@ export = {
     const stack = new Stack(app, 'MyStack');
     new Policy(stack, 'MyPolicy');
 
-    test.throws(() => app.synthesizeStack(stack.name), /Policy is empty/);
+    test.throws(() => app.run(), /Policy is empty/);
     test.done();
   },
 
@@ -24,7 +25,7 @@ export = {
     const group = new Group(stack, 'MyGroup');
     group.attachInlinePolicy(policy);
 
-    test.deepEqual(app.synthesizeStack(stack.name).template, { Resources:
+    expect(stack).toMatch({ Resources:
       { MyPolicy39D66CF6:
          { Type: 'AWS::IAM::Policy',
          Properties:
@@ -50,7 +51,7 @@ export = {
     const user = new User(stack, 'MyUser');
     user.attachInlinePolicy(policy);
 
-    test.deepEqual(app.synthesizeStack(stack.name).template, { Resources:
+    expect(stack).toMatch({ Resources:
       { MyPolicy39D66CF6:
          { Type: 'AWS::IAM::Policy',
          Properties:
@@ -84,7 +85,7 @@ export = {
       statements: [ new PolicyStatement().addResource('*').addAction('dynamodb:PutItem') ],
     });
 
-    test.deepEqual(app.synthesizeStack(stack.name).template, { Resources:
+    expect(stack).toMatch({ Resources:
       { User1E278A736: { Type: 'AWS::IAM::User' },
         Group1BEBD4686: { Type: 'AWS::IAM::Group' },
         Role13A5C70C1:
@@ -121,7 +122,7 @@ export = {
     p.attachToUser(user);
     p.attachToUser(user);
 
-    test.deepEqual(app.synthesizeStack(stack.name).template, { Resources:
+    expect(stack).toMatch({ Resources:
       { MyPolicy39D66CF6:
          { Type: 'AWS::IAM::Policy',
          Properties:
@@ -149,7 +150,7 @@ export = {
     p.attachToRole(new Role(stack, 'Role1', { assumedBy: new ServicePrincipal('test.service') }));
     p.addStatement(new PolicyStatement().addResource('*').addAction('dynamodb:GetItem'));
 
-    test.deepEqual(app.synthesizeStack(stack.name).template, { Resources:
+    expect(stack).toMatch({ Resources:
       { MyTestPolicy316BDB50:
          { Type: 'AWS::IAM::Policy',
          Properties:
@@ -191,7 +192,7 @@ export = {
 
     policy.addStatement(new PolicyStatement().addResource('*').addAction('*'));
 
-    test.deepEqual(app.synthesizeStack(stack.name).template, { Resources:
+    expect(stack).toMatch({ Resources:
       { MyPolicy39D66CF6:
          { Type: 'AWS::IAM::Policy',
          Properties:
@@ -249,7 +250,7 @@ export = {
     const app = new App();
     const stack = new Stack(app, 'MyStack');
     new Policy(stack, 'MyPolicy');
-    test.throws(() => app.synthesizeStack(stack.name), /Policy must be attached to at least one principal: user, group or role/);
+    test.throws(() => app.run(), /Policy must be attached to at least one principal: user, group or role/);
     test.done();
   },
 
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-iam/test/test.role.ts b/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-iam/test/test.role.ts
index 755a192dea6c1..c3783e814ba4d 100644
--- a/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-iam/test/test.role.ts
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-iam/test/test.role.ts
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-import { expect, haveResource, haveResourceLike, SynthUtils } from '@aws-cdk/assert';
+import { expect, haveResource, haveResourceLike } from '@aws-cdk/assert';
 import { Stack } from '@aws-cdk/cdk';
 import { Test } from 'nodeunit';
 import { ArnPrincipal, CompositePrincipal, FederatedPrincipal, PolicyStatement, Role, ServicePrincipal, User } from '../lib';
@@ -81,36 +81,33 @@ export = {
   },
 
   'policy is created automatically when permissions are added'(test: Test) {
-    const stack = new Stack();
-
-    const role = new Role(stack, 'MyRole', {
-      assumedBy: new ServicePrincipal('sns.amazonaws.com')
-    });
-
-    test.ok(!('MyRoleDefaultPolicyA36BE1DD' in SynthUtils.toCloudFormation(stack).Resources), 'initially created without a policy');
-
-    role.addToPolicy(new PolicyStatement().addResource('myresource').addAction('myaction'));
-    test.ok(SynthUtils.toCloudFormation(stack).Resources.MyRoleDefaultPolicyA36BE1DD, 'policy resource created');
-
-    expect(stack).toMatch({ Resources:
-      { MyRoleF48FFE04:
-         { Type: 'AWS::IAM::Role',
-         Properties:
-          { AssumeRolePolicyDocument:
-           { Statement:
-            [ { Action: 'sts:AssumeRole',
-              Effect: 'Allow',
-              Principal: { Service: 'sns.amazonaws.com' } } ],
-             Version: '2012-10-17' } } },
-        MyRoleDefaultPolicyA36BE1DD:
-         { Type: 'AWS::IAM::Policy',
-         Properties:
-          { PolicyDocument:
-           { Statement:
-            [ { Action: 'myaction', Effect: 'Allow', Resource: 'myresource' } ],
-             Version: '2012-10-17' },
-          PolicyName: 'MyRoleDefaultPolicyA36BE1DD',
-          Roles: [ { Ref: 'MyRoleF48FFE04' } ] } } } });
+    // by default we don't expect a role policy
+    const before = new Stack();
+    new Role(before, 'MyRole', { assumedBy: new ServicePrincipal('sns.amazonaws.com') });
+    expect(before).notTo(haveResource('AWS::IAM::Policy'));
+
+    // add a policy to the role
+    const after = new Stack();
+    const afterRole = new Role(after, 'MyRole', { assumedBy: new ServicePrincipal('sns.amazonaws.com') });
+    afterRole.addToPolicy(new PolicyStatement().addResource('myresource').addAction('myaction'));
+    expect(after).to(haveResource('AWS::IAM::Policy', {
+      PolicyDocument: {
+        Statement: [
+          {
+            Action: "myaction",
+            Effect: "Allow",
+            Resource: "myresource"
+          }
+        ],
+        Version: "2012-10-17"
+      },
+      PolicyName: "MyRoleDefaultPolicyA36BE1DD",
+      Roles: [
+        {
+          Ref: "MyRoleF48FFE04"
+        }
+      ]
+    }));
     test.done();
   },
 
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-iam/test/test.user.ts b/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-iam/test/test.user.ts
index d483669635c26..4cc7d827b122b 100644
--- a/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-iam/test/test.user.ts
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-iam/test/test.user.ts
@@ -1,3 +1,4 @@
+import { expect } from '@aws-cdk/assert';
 import { App, SecretValue, Stack } from '@aws-cdk/cdk';
 import { Test } from 'nodeunit';
 import { User } from '../lib';
@@ -7,7 +8,7 @@ export = {
     const app = new App();
     const stack = new Stack(app, 'MyStack');
     new User(stack, 'MyUser');
-    test.deepEqual(app.synthesizeStack(stack.name).template, {
+    expect(stack).toMatch({
       Resources: { MyUserDC45028B: { Type: 'AWS::IAM::User' } }
     });
     test.done();
@@ -19,7 +20,8 @@ export = {
     new User(stack, 'MyUser', {
       password: SecretValue.plainText('1234')
     });
-    test.deepEqual(app.synthesizeStack(stack.name).template, { Resources:
+
+    expect(stack).toMatch({ Resources:
       { MyUserDC45028B:
          { Type: 'AWS::IAM::User',
          Properties: { LoginProfile: { Password: '1234' } } } } });
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-kinesis/test/test.stream.ts b/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-kinesis/test/test.stream.ts
index a8f857ef5f5d6..28e69969a785f 100644
--- a/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-kinesis/test/test.stream.ts
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-kinesis/test/test.stream.ts
@@ -851,10 +851,11 @@ export = {
   },
   "cross-stack permissions": {
     "no encryption"(test: Test) {
-      const stackA = new Stack();
+      const app = new App();
+      const stackA = new Stack(app, 'stackA');
       const streamFromStackA = new Stream(stackA, 'MyStream');
 
-      const stackB = new Stack();
+      const stackB = new Stack(app, 'stackB');
       const user = new iam.User(stackB, 'UserWhoNeedsAccess');
       streamFromStackA.grantRead(user);
 
@@ -867,6 +868,19 @@ export = {
               "ShardCount": 1
             }
           }
+        },
+        "Outputs": {
+          "ExportsOutputFnGetAttMyStream5C050E93Arn4ABF30CD": {
+            "Value": {
+              "Fn::GetAtt": [
+                "MyStream5C050E93",
+                "Arn"
+              ]
+            },
+            "Export": {
+              "Name": "stackA:ExportsOutputFnGetAttMyStream5C050E93Arn4ABF30CD"
+            }
+          }
         }
       });
 
@@ -888,7 +902,7 @@ export = {
                     ],
                     "Effect": "Allow",
                     "Resource": {
-                      "Fn::ImportValue": "Stack:ExportsOutputFnGetAttMyStream5C050E93Arn4ABF30CD"
+                      "Fn::ImportValue": "stackA:ExportsOutputFnGetAttMyStream5C050E93Arn4ABF30CD"
                     }
                   }
                 ],
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-kms/test/test.alias.ts b/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-kms/test/test.alias.ts
index 7d52b35a63490..30547147ed52c 100644
--- a/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-kms/test/test.alias.ts
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-kms/test/test.alias.ts
@@ -1,3 +1,4 @@
+import { expect, haveResource } from '@aws-cdk/assert';
 import { App, Stack } from '@aws-cdk/cdk';
 import { Test } from 'nodeunit';
 import { Key } from '../lib';
@@ -11,13 +12,10 @@ export = {
 
     new EncryptionKeyAlias(stack, 'Alias', { key, alias: 'alias/foo' });
 
-    test.deepEqual(app.synthesizeStack(stack.name).template.Resources.Alias325C5727, {
-      Type: 'AWS::KMS::Alias',
-      Properties: {
-        AliasName: 'alias/foo',
-        TargetKeyId: { 'Fn::GetAtt': [ 'Key961B73FD', 'Arn' ] }
-      }
-    });
+    expect(stack).to(haveResource('AWS::KMS::Alias', {
+      AliasName: 'alias/foo',
+      TargetKeyId: { 'Fn::GetAtt': [ 'Key961B73FD', 'Arn' ] }
+    }));
 
     test.done();
   },
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-kms/test/test.key.ts b/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-kms/test/test.key.ts
index 3d1975b681472..ac1e68047a2ae 100644
--- a/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-kms/test/test.key.ts
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-kms/test/test.key.ts
@@ -70,7 +70,7 @@ export = {
 
     new Key(stack, 'MyKey', { retain: false });
 
-    expect(app.synthesizeStack(stack.name)).to(haveResource('AWS::KMS::Key', { DeletionPolicy: "Delete" }, ResourcePart.CompleteDefinition));
+    expect(stack).to(haveResource('AWS::KMS::Key', { DeletionPolicy: "Delete" }, ResourcePart.CompleteDefinition));
     test.done();
   },
 
@@ -83,7 +83,7 @@ export = {
     p.addAwsPrincipal('arn');
     key.addToResourcePolicy(p);
 
-    expect(app.synthesizeStack(stack.name)).to(exactlyMatchTemplate({
+    expect(stack).to(exactlyMatchTemplate({
       Resources: {
         MyKey6AB29FA6: {
         Type: "AWS::KMS::Key",
@@ -252,7 +252,7 @@ export = {
     const alias = key.addAlias('alias/xoo');
     test.ok(alias.aliasName);
 
-    test.deepEqual(app.synthesizeStack(stack.name).template, {
+    expect(stack).toMatch({
       Resources: {
         MyKey6AB29FA6: {
           Type: "AWS::KMS::Key",
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-lambda/test/test.code.ts b/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-lambda/test/test.code.ts
index dd03afa3c9630..f89e226222286 100644
--- a/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-lambda/test/test.code.ts
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-lambda/test/test.code.ts
@@ -63,7 +63,8 @@ export = {
       });
 
       // THEN
-      const synthesized = app.synthesizeStack('MyStack');
+      const assembly = app.run();
+      const synthesized = assembly.stacks[0];
 
       // Func1 has an asset, Func2 does not
       test.deepEqual(synthesized.metadata['/MyStack/Func1/Code'][0].type, 'aws:cdk:asset');
@@ -89,7 +90,7 @@ export = {
       // THEN
       expect(stack).to(haveResource('AWS::Lambda::Function', {
         Metadata: {
-          [cxapi.ASSET_RESOURCE_METADATA_PATH_KEY]: location,
+          [cxapi.ASSET_RESOURCE_METADATA_PATH_KEY]: 'asset.9678c34eca93259d11f2d714177347afd66c50116e1e08996eff893d3ca81232',
           [cxapi.ASSET_RESOURCE_METADATA_PROPERTY_KEY]: 'Code'
         }
       }, ResourcePart.CompleteDefinition));
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-lambda/test/test.vpc-lambda.ts b/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-lambda/test/test.vpc-lambda.ts
index ded901c643994..9a4d94f959694 100644
--- a/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-lambda/test/test.vpc-lambda.ts
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-lambda/test/test.vpc-lambda.ts
@@ -6,13 +6,15 @@ import lambda = require('../lib');
 
 export = {
   'lambda in a VPC': classFixture(class Henk {
+    private readonly app: cdk.App;
     private readonly stack: cdk.Stack;
     private readonly vpc: ec2.Vpc;
     private readonly lambda: lambda.Function;
 
     constructor() {
       // GIVEN
-      this.stack = new cdk.Stack();
+      this.app = new cdk.App();
+      this.stack = new cdk.Stack(this.app, 'stack');
       this.vpc = new ec2.Vpc(this.stack, 'VPC');
 
       // WHEN
@@ -76,44 +78,44 @@ export = {
 
     public 'can still make Connections after export/import'(test: Test) {
       // GIVEN
-      const stack2 = new cdk.Stack();
+      const stack2 = new cdk.Stack(this.app, 'stack2');
       const securityGroup = new ec2.SecurityGroup(stack2, 'SomeSecurityGroup', { vpc: this.vpc });
       const somethingConnectable = new SomethingConnectable(new ec2.Connections({ securityGroups: [securityGroup] }));
 
       // WHEN
-      this.lambda.connections.allowTo(somethingConnectable, new ec2.TcpAllPorts(), 'Lambda can call connectable');
+      somethingConnectable.connections.allowFrom(this.lambda.connections, new ec2.TcpAllPorts(), 'Lambda can call connectable');
 
       // THEN: SomeSecurityGroup accepts connections from Lambda
-      expect(this.stack).to(haveResource("AWS::EC2::SecurityGroupEgress", {
+      expect(stack2).to(haveResource("AWS::EC2::SecurityGroupEgress", {
         GroupId: {
-          "Fn::GetAtt": [
-            "LambdaSecurityGroupE74659A1",
-            "GroupId"
-          ]
+          "Fn::ImportValue": "stack:ExportsOutputFnGetAttLambdaSecurityGroupE74659A1GroupId8F3EC6F1"
         },
         IpProtocol: "tcp",
         Description: "Lambda can call connectable",
         DestinationSecurityGroupId: {
-          "Fn::ImportValue": "Stack:ExportsOutputFnGetAttSomeSecurityGroupEF219AD6GroupId09FCF7BE"
+          "Fn::GetAtt": [
+            "SomeSecurityGroupEF219AD6",
+            "GroupId"
+          ]
         },
         FromPort: 0,
         ToPort: 65535
       }));
 
       // THEN: Lambda can connect to SomeSecurityGroup
-      expect(this.stack).to(haveResource("AWS::EC2::SecurityGroupIngress", {
+      expect(stack2).to(haveResource("AWS::EC2::SecurityGroupIngress", {
         IpProtocol: "tcp",
         Description: "Lambda can call connectable",
         FromPort: 0,
         GroupId: {
-          "Fn::ImportValue": "Stack:ExportsOutputFnGetAttSomeSecurityGroupEF219AD6GroupId09FCF7BE"
-        },
-        SourceSecurityGroupId: {
           "Fn::GetAtt": [
-            "LambdaSecurityGroupE74659A1",
+            "SomeSecurityGroupEF219AD6",
             "GroupId"
           ]
         },
+        SourceSecurityGroupId: {
+          "Fn::ImportValue": "stack:ExportsOutputFnGetAttLambdaSecurityGroupE74659A1GroupId8F3EC6F1"
+        },
         ToPort: 65535
       }));
 
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-route53/test/test.route53.ts b/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-route53/test/test.route53.ts
index 3a5c456ba3182..f2efdd0b53ad9 100644
--- a/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-route53/test/test.route53.ts
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-route53/test/test.route53.ts
@@ -9,7 +9,7 @@ export = {
     'public hosted zone'(test: Test) {
       const app = new TestApp();
       new PublicHostedZone(app.stack, 'HostedZone', { zoneName: 'test.public' });
-      expect(app.synthesizeTemplate()).to(exactlyMatchTemplate({
+      expect(app.stack).to(exactlyMatchTemplate({
         Resources: {
           HostedZoneDB99F866: {
             Type: "AWS::Route53::HostedZone",
@@ -25,7 +25,7 @@ export = {
       const app = new TestApp();
       const vpcNetwork = new ec2.Vpc(app.stack, 'VPC');
       new PrivateHostedZone(app.stack, 'HostedZone', { zoneName: 'test.private', vpc: vpcNetwork });
-      expect(app.synthesizeTemplate()).to(beASupersetOfTemplate({
+      expect(app.stack).to(beASupersetOfTemplate({
         Resources: {
           HostedZoneDB99F866: {
             Type: "AWS::Route53::HostedZone",
@@ -47,7 +47,7 @@ export = {
       const vpcNetworkB = new ec2.Vpc(app.stack, 'VPC2');
       new PrivateHostedZone(app.stack, 'HostedZone', { zoneName: 'test.private', vpc: vpcNetworkA })
         .addVpc(vpcNetworkB);
-      expect(app.synthesizeTemplate()).to(beASupersetOfTemplate({
+      expect(app.stack).to(beASupersetOfTemplate({
         Resources: {
           HostedZoneDB99F866: {
             Type: "AWS::Route53::HostedZone",
@@ -207,8 +207,4 @@ class TestApp {
       [`${region}-1a`]);
     this.stack = new cdk.Stack(this.app, 'MyStack', { env: { account, region } });
   }
-
-  public synthesizeTemplate() {
-    return this.app.synthesizeStack(this.stack.name);
-  }
 }
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-route53/test/test.txt-record.ts b/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-route53/test/test.txt-record.ts
index c2f797a037d4b..c213b798813c2 100644
--- a/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-route53/test/test.txt-record.ts
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-route53/test/test.txt-record.ts
@@ -9,7 +9,7 @@ export = {
       const app = new TestApp();
       const zone = new PublicHostedZone(app.stack, 'HostedZone', { zoneName: 'test.public' });
       new TxtRecord(zone, 'TXT', { zone, recordName: '_foo', recordValue: 'Bar!' });
-      expect(app.synthesizeTemplate()).to(exactlyMatchTemplate({
+      expect(app.stack).to(exactlyMatchTemplate({
         Resources: {
           HostedZoneDB99F866: {
             Type: 'AWS::Route53::HostedZone',
@@ -47,8 +47,4 @@ class TestApp {
               [`${region}-1a`]);
     this.stack = new Stack(this.app, 'MyStack', { env: { account, region } });
   }
-
-  public synthesizeTemplate() {
-    return this.app.synthesizeStack(this.stack.name);
-  }
 }
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-route53/test/test.zone-delegation-record.ts b/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-route53/test/test.zone-delegation-record.ts
index a1d3087a8a94e..03d05b2161c74 100644
--- a/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-route53/test/test.zone-delegation-record.ts
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-route53/test/test.zone-delegation-record.ts
@@ -13,7 +13,7 @@ export = {
         delegatedZoneName: 'foo',
         nameServers: ['ns-1777.awsdns-30.co.uk']
       });
-      expect(app.synthesizeTemplate()).to(exactlyMatchTemplate({
+      expect(app.stack).to(exactlyMatchTemplate({
         Resources: {
           HostedZoneDB99F866: {
             Type: 'AWS::Route53::HostedZone',
@@ -51,8 +51,4 @@ class TestApp {
               [`${region}-1a`]);
     this.stack = new Stack(this.app, 'MyStack', { env: { account, region } });
   }
-
-  public synthesizeTemplate() {
-    return this.app.synthesizeStack(this.stack.name);
-  }
 }
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-s3-notifications/test/notifications.test.ts b/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-s3-notifications/test/notifications.test.ts
index 982a181fa970a..a04ed46b3e405 100644
--- a/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-s3-notifications/test/notifications.test.ts
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-s3-notifications/test/notifications.test.ts
@@ -291,7 +291,7 @@ test('a notification destination can specify a set of dependencies that must be
   bucket.addObjectCreatedNotification(dest);
 
   stack.node.prepareTree();
-  expect(SynthUtils.toCloudFormation(stack).Resources.BucketNotifications8F2E257D).toEqual({
+  expect(SynthUtils.synthesize(stack).template.Resources.BucketNotifications8F2E257D).toEqual({
     Type: 'Custom::S3BucketNotifications',
     Properties: {
       ServiceToken: { 'Fn::GetAtt': [ 'BucketNotificationsHandler050a0587b7544547bf325f094a3db8347ECC3691', 'Arn' ] },
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-s3-notifications/test/queue.test.ts b/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-s3-notifications/test/queue.test.ts
index a503d41629e27..1728deaa5b905 100644
--- a/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-s3-notifications/test/queue.test.ts
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-s3-notifications/test/queue.test.ts
@@ -70,7 +70,7 @@ test('queues can be used as destinations', () => {
 
   // make sure the queue policy is added as a dependency to the bucket
   // notifications resource so it will be created first.
-  expect(SynthUtils.toCloudFormation(stack).Resources.BucketNotifications8F2E257D.DependsOn).toEqual(['QueuePolicy25439813', 'Queue4A7E3555']);
+  expect(SynthUtils.synthesize(stack).template.Resources.BucketNotifications8F2E257D.DependsOn).toEqual(['QueuePolicy25439813', 'Queue4A7E3555']);
 });
 
 test('if the queue is encrypted with a custom kms key, the key resource policy is updated to allow s3 to read messages', () => {
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-s3/test/test.bucket.ts b/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-s3/test/test.bucket.ts
index 7bbc356e10de2..32ed9ba691330 100644
--- a/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-s3/test/test.bucket.ts
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/aws-s3/test/test.bucket.ts
@@ -36,7 +36,7 @@ export = {
     });
 
     test.throws(() => {
-      SynthUtils.toCloudFormation(stack);
+      SynthUtils.synthesize(stack);
     }, /bucketName: 5 should be a string/);
 
     test.done();
@@ -571,7 +571,7 @@ export = {
       test.deepEqual(bucket.bucketArn, bucketArn);
       test.deepEqual(bucket.node.resolve(bucket.bucketName), 'my-bucket');
 
-      test.deepEqual(SynthUtils.toCloudFormation(stack), {}, 'the ref is not a real resource');
+      test.deepEqual(SynthUtils.synthesize(stack).template, {}, 'the ref is not a real resource');
       test.done();
     },
 
@@ -1000,7 +1000,7 @@ export = {
     bucket.grantWrite(writer);
     bucket.grantDelete(deleter);
 
-    const resources = SynthUtils.toCloudFormation(stack).Resources;
+    const resources = SynthUtils.synthesize(stack).template.Resources;
     const actions = (id: string) => resources[id].Properties.PolicyDocument.Statement[0].Action;
 
     test.deepEqual(actions('WriterDefaultPolicyDC585BCE'), ['s3:DeleteObject*', 's3:PutObject*', 's3:Abort*']);
@@ -1010,10 +1010,11 @@ export = {
   },
 
   'cross-stack permissions'(test: Test) {
-    const stackA = new cdk.Stack();
+    const app = new cdk.App();
+    const stackA = new cdk.Stack(app, 'stackA');
     const bucketFromStackA = new s3.Bucket(stackA, 'MyBucket');
 
-    const stackB = new cdk.Stack();
+    const stackB = new cdk.Stack(app, 'stackB');
     const user = new iam.User(stackB, 'UserWhoNeedsAccess');
     bucketFromStackA.grantRead(user);
 
@@ -1021,7 +1022,20 @@ export = {
       "Resources": {
         "MyBucketF68F3FF0": {
           "Type": "AWS::S3::Bucket",
-          "DeletionPolicy": "Retain",
+          "DeletionPolicy": "Retain"
+        }
+      },
+      "Outputs": {
+        "ExportsOutputFnGetAttMyBucketF68F3FF0Arn0F7E8E58": {
+          "Value": {
+            "Fn::GetAtt": [
+              "MyBucketF68F3FF0",
+              "Arn"
+            ]
+          },
+          "Export": {
+            "Name": "stackA:ExportsOutputFnGetAttMyBucketF68F3FF0Arn0F7E8E58"
+          }
         }
       }
     });
@@ -1045,14 +1059,14 @@ export = {
                   "Effect": "Allow",
                   "Resource": [
                     {
-                      "Fn::ImportValue": "Stack:ExportsOutputFnGetAttMyBucketF68F3FF0Arn0F7E8E58"
+                      "Fn::ImportValue": "stackA:ExportsOutputFnGetAttMyBucketF68F3FF0Arn0F7E8E58"
                     },
                     {
                       "Fn::Join": [
                         "",
                         [
                           {
-                            "Fn::ImportValue": "Stack:ExportsOutputFnGetAttMyBucketF68F3FF0Arn0F7E8E58"
+                            "Fn::ImportValue": "stackA:ExportsOutputFnGetAttMyBucketF68F3FF0Arn0F7E8E58"
                           },
                           "/*"
                         ]
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/cdk/lib/app.ts b/packages/@aws-cdk/cdk/lib/app.ts
index 45f0f43d51b84..79d021493f310 100644
--- a/packages/@aws-cdk/cdk/lib/app.ts
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/cdk/lib/app.ts
@@ -1,6 +1,10 @@
 import cxapi = require('@aws-cdk/cx-api');
+import { CloudAssembly } from '@aws-cdk/cx-api';
 import { Construct } from './construct';
-import { FileSystemStore, InMemoryStore, ISynthesisSession, Synthesizer } from './synthesis';
+import { collectRuntimeInformation } from './runtime-info';
+import { Synthesizer } from './synthesis';
+
+const APP_SYMBOL = Symbol.for('@aws-cdk/cdk.App');
 
 /**
  * Custom construction properties for a CDK program
@@ -15,6 +19,26 @@ export interface AppProps {
    */
   readonly autoRun?: boolean;
 
+  /**
+   * The output directory into which to emit synthesized artifacts.
+   *
+   * @default - If this value is _not_ set, considers the environment variable `CDK_OUTDIR`.
+   *            If `CDK_OUTDIR` is not defined, uses a temp directory.
+   */
+  readonly outdir?: string;
+
+  /**
+   * Include stack traces in construct metadata entries.
+   * @default true stack traces are included
+   */
+  readonly stackTraces?: boolean;
+
+  /**
+   * Include runtime versioning information in cloud assembly manifest
+   * @default true runtime info is included
+   */
+  readonly runtimeInfo?: boolean;
+
   /**
    * Additional context values for the application
    *
@@ -27,9 +51,14 @@ export interface AppProps {
  * Represents a CDK program.
  */
 export class App extends Construct {
-  private _session?: ISynthesisSession;
-  private readonly legacyManifest: boolean;
-  private readonly runtimeInformation: boolean;
+
+  public static isApp(obj: any): obj is App {
+    return APP_SYMBOL in obj;
+  }
+
+  private _assembly?: CloudAssembly;
+  private readonly runtimeInfo: boolean;
+  private readonly outdir?: string;
 
   /**
    * Initializes a CDK application.
@@ -38,11 +67,21 @@ export class App extends Construct {
   constructor(props: AppProps = {}) {
     super(undefined as any, '');
 
+    Object.defineProperty(this, APP_SYMBOL, { value: true });
+
     this.loadContext(props.context);
 
+    if (props.stackTraces === false) {
+      this.node.setContext(cxapi.DISABLE_METADATA_STACK_TRACE, true);
+    }
+
+    if (props.runtimeInfo === false) {
+      this.node.setContext(cxapi.DISABLE_VERSION_REPORTING, true);
+    }
+
     // both are reverse logic
-    this.legacyManifest = this.node.getContext(cxapi.DISABLE_LEGACY_MANIFEST_CONTEXT) ? false : true;
-    this.runtimeInformation = this.node.getContext(cxapi.DISABLE_VERSION_REPORTING) ? false : true;
+    this.runtimeInfo = this.node.getContext(cxapi.DISABLE_VERSION_REPORTING) ? false : true;
+    this.outdir = props.outdir || process.env[cxapi.OUTDIR_ENV];
 
     const autoRun = props.autoRun !== undefined ? props.autoRun : cxapi.OUTDIR_ENV in process.env;
 
@@ -54,64 +93,27 @@ export class App extends Construct {
   }
 
   /**
-   * Runs the program. Output is written to output directory as specified in the request.
+   * Runs the program. Output is written to output directory as specified in the
+   * request.
+   *
+   * @returns a `CloudAssembly` which includes all the synthesized artifacts
+   * such as CloudFormation templates and assets.
    */
-  public run(): ISynthesisSession {
+  public run(): CloudAssembly {
     // this app has already been executed, no-op for you
-    if (this._session) {
-      return this._session;
-    }
-
-    const outdir = process.env[cxapi.OUTDIR_ENV];
-    let store;
-    if (outdir) {
-      store = new FileSystemStore({ outdir });
-    } else {
-      store = new InMemoryStore();
+    if (this._assembly) {
+      return this._assembly;
     }
 
     const synth = new Synthesizer();
 
-    this._session = synth.synthesize(this, {
-      store,
-      legacyManifest: this.legacyManifest,
-      runtimeInformation: this.runtimeInformation
+    const assembly = synth.synthesize(this, {
+      outdir: this.outdir,
+      runtimeInfo: this.runtimeInfo ? collectRuntimeInformation() : undefined
     });
 
-    return this._session;
-  }
-
-  /**
-   * Synthesize and validate a single stack.
-   * @param stackName The name of the stack to synthesize
-   * @deprecated This method is going to be deprecated in a future version of the CDK
-   */
-  public synthesizeStack(stackName: string): cxapi.SynthesizedStack {
-    if (!this.legacyManifest) {
-      throw new Error('No legacy manifest available, return an old-style stack output');
-    }
-
-    const session = this.run();
-    const legacy: cxapi.SynthesizeResponse = session.store.readJson(cxapi.OUTFILE_NAME);
-
-    const res = legacy.stacks.find(s => s.name === stackName);
-    if (!res) {
-      throw new Error(`Stack "${stackName}" not found`);
-    }
-
-    return res;
-  }
-
-  /**
-   * Synthesizes multiple stacks
-   * @deprecated This method is going to be deprecated in a future version of the CDK
-   */
-  public synthesizeStacks(stackNames: string[]): cxapi.SynthesizedStack[] {
-    const ret: cxapi.SynthesizedStack[] = [];
-    for (const stackName of stackNames) {
-      ret.push(this.synthesizeStack(stackName));
-    }
-    return ret;
+    this._assembly = assembly;
+    return assembly;
   }
 
   private loadContext(defaults: { [key: string]: string } = { }) {
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/cdk/lib/cfn-element.ts b/packages/@aws-cdk/cdk/lib/cfn-element.ts
index 1ac6e1c1540c7..c5bd71e24b2fd 100644
--- a/packages/@aws-cdk/cdk/lib/cfn-element.ts
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/cdk/lib/cfn-element.ts
@@ -62,8 +62,13 @@ export abstract class CfnElement extends Construct {
    *      from the +metadata+ entry typed +aws:cdk:logicalId+, and with the bottom-most
    *      node +internal+ entries filtered.
    */
-  public get creationStackTrace(): string[] {
-    return filterStackTrace(this.node.metadata.find(md => md.type === LOGICAL_ID_MD)!.trace);
+  public get creationStackTrace(): string[] | undefined {
+    const trace = this.node.metadata.find(md => md.type === LOGICAL_ID_MD)!.trace;
+    if (!trace) {
+      return undefined;
+    }
+
+    return filterStackTrace(trace);
 
     function filterStackTrace(stack: string[]): string[] {
       const result = Array.of(...stack);
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/cdk/lib/cfn-reference.ts b/packages/@aws-cdk/cdk/lib/cfn-reference.ts
index 4589116757e22..1c357a1084a8e 100644
--- a/packages/@aws-cdk/cdk/lib/cfn-reference.ts
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/cdk/lib/cfn-reference.ts
@@ -89,6 +89,7 @@ export class CfnReference extends Reference {
     if (typeof(value) === 'function') {
       throw new Error('Reference can only hold CloudFormation intrinsics (not a function)');
     }
+
     // prepend scope path to display name
     super(value, `${target.node.id}.${displayName}`, target);
     this.originalDisplayName = displayName;
@@ -113,6 +114,12 @@ export class CfnReference extends Reference {
    * Register a stack this references is being consumed from.
    */
   public consumeFromStack(consumingStack: Stack, consumingConstruct: IConstruct) {
+    if (this.producingStack && consumingStack.node.root !== this.producingStack.node.root) {
+      throw this.newError(
+        `Cannot reference across apps. ` +
+        `Consuming and producing stacks must be defined within the same CDK app.`);
+    }
+
     // tslint:disable-next-line:max-line-length
     if (this.producingStack && this.producingStack !== consumingStack && !this.replacementTokens.has(consumingStack)) {
       // We're trying to resolve a cross-stack reference
@@ -130,7 +137,7 @@ export class CfnReference extends Reference {
     const producingStack = this.producingStack!;
 
     if (producingStack.env.account !== consumingStack.env.account || producingStack.env.region !== consumingStack.env.region) {
-      throw new Error('Can only reference cross stacks in the same region and account.');
+      throw this.newError('Can only reference cross stacks in the same region and account.');
     }
 
     // Ensure a singleton "Exports" scoping Construct
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/cdk/lib/cfn-resource.ts b/packages/@aws-cdk/cdk/lib/cfn-resource.ts
index 03222c1aae72d..d04eac39c5c12 100644
--- a/packages/@aws-cdk/cdk/lib/cfn-resource.ts
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/cdk/lib/cfn-resource.ts
@@ -245,9 +245,13 @@ export class CfnResource extends CfnRefElement {
       // Change message
       e.message = `While synthesizing ${this.node.path}: ${e.message}`;
       // Adjust stack trace (make it look like node built it, too...)
-      const creationStack = ['--- resource created at ---', ...this.creationStackTrace].join('\n  at ');
-      const problemTrace = e.stack.substr(e.stack.indexOf(e.message) + e.message.length);
-      e.stack = `${e.message}\n  ${creationStack}\n  --- problem discovered at ---${problemTrace}`;
+      const trace = this.creationStackTrace;
+      if (trace) {
+        const creationStack = ['--- resource created at ---', ...trace].join('\n  at ');
+        const problemTrace = e.stack.substr(e.stack.indexOf(e.message) + e.message.length);
+        e.stack = `${e.message}\n  ${creationStack}\n  --- problem discovered at ---${problemTrace}`;
+      }
+
       // Re-throw
       throw e;
     }
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/cdk/lib/construct.ts b/packages/@aws-cdk/cdk/lib/construct.ts
index c771e05d9e8af..900df346bdb09 100644
--- a/packages/@aws-cdk/cdk/lib/construct.ts
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/cdk/lib/construct.ts
@@ -3,6 +3,7 @@ import { IAspect } from './aspect';
 import { CLOUDFORMATION_TOKEN_RESOLVER, CloudFormationLang } from './cloudformation-lang';
 import { IDependable } from './dependency';
 import { resolve } from './resolve';
+import { createStackTrace } from './stack-trace';
 import { Token } from './token';
 import { makeUniqueId } from './uniqueid';
 
@@ -44,7 +45,7 @@ export class ConstructNode {
    */
   private readonly _children: { [name: string]: IConstruct } = { };
   private readonly context: { [key: string]: any } = { };
-  private readonly _metadata = new Array<MetadataEntry>();
+  private readonly _metadata = new Array<cxapi.MetadataEntry>();
   private readonly references = new Set<Reference>();
   private readonly dependencies = new Set<IDependable>();
 
@@ -279,7 +280,8 @@ export class ConstructNode {
     if (data == null) {
       return;
     }
-    const trace = createStackTrace(from || this.addMetadata);
+
+    const trace = this.getContext(cxapi.DISABLE_METADATA_STACK_TRACE) ? undefined : createStackTrace(from || this.addMetadata);
     this._metadata.push({ type, data, trace });
   }
 
@@ -350,11 +352,18 @@ export class ConstructNode {
     this.aspects.push(aspect);
     return;
   }
+
   /**
-   * Return the ancestors (including self) of this Construct up until and excluding the indicated component
+   * Return the ancestors (including self) of this Construct up until and
+   * excluding the indicated component
+   *
+   * @param upTo The construct to return the path components relative to, or the
+   * entire list of ancestors (including root) if omitted. This construct will
+   * not be included in the returned list.
    *
-   * @param upTo The construct to return the path components relative to, or
-   * the entire list of ancestors (including root) if omitted.
+   * @returns a list of parent scopes. The last element in the list will always
+   * be `this` and the first element is the oldest scope (if `upTo` is not set,
+   * it will be the root of the construct tree).
    */
   public ancestors(upTo?: Construct): IConstruct[] {
     const ret = new Array<IConstruct>();
@@ -368,6 +377,13 @@ export class ConstructNode {
     return ret;
   }
 
+  /**
+   * @returns The root of the construct tree.
+   */
+  public get root() {
+    return this.ancestors()[0];
+  }
+
   /**
    * Throws if the `props` bag doesn't include the property `name`.
    * In the future we can add some type-checking here, maybe even auto-generate during compilation.
@@ -633,48 +649,12 @@ export class Construct implements IConstruct {
   }
 }
 
-/**
- * An metadata entry in the construct.
- */
-export interface MetadataEntry {
-  /**
-   * The type of the metadata entry.
-   */
-  readonly type: string;
-
-  /**
-   * The data.
-   */
-  readonly data?: any;
-
-  /**
-   * A stack trace for when the entry was created.
-   */
-  readonly trace: string[];
-}
-
 export class ValidationError {
   constructor(public readonly source: IConstruct, public readonly message: string) {
 
   }
 }
 
-// tslint:disable-next-line:ban-types
-function createStackTrace(below: Function): string[] {
-  const object = { stack: '' };
-  const previousLimit = Error.stackTraceLimit;
-  try {
-    Error.stackTraceLimit = Number.MAX_SAFE_INTEGER;
-    Error.captureStackTrace(object, below);
-  } finally {
-    Error.stackTraceLimit = previousLimit;
-  }
-  if (!object.stack) {
-    return [];
-  }
-  return object.stack.split('\n').slice(1).map(s => s.replace(/^\s*at\s+/, ''));
-}
-
 /**
  * In what order to return constructs
  */
@@ -726,4 +706,4 @@ export interface OutgoingReference {
 }
 
 // Import this _after_ everything else to help node work the classes out in the correct order...
-import { Reference } from './reference';
\ No newline at end of file
+import { Reference } from './reference';
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/cdk/lib/runtime-info.ts b/packages/@aws-cdk/cdk/lib/runtime-info.ts
index c978691acc808..bfef428819b6a 100644
--- a/packages/@aws-cdk/cdk/lib/runtime-info.ts
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/cdk/lib/runtime-info.ts
@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ import { major as nodeMajorVersion } from './node-version';
 /**
  * Returns a list of loaded modules and their versions.
  */
-export function collectRuntimeInformation(): cxapi.AppRuntime {
+export function collectRuntimeInformation(): cxapi.RuntimeInfo {
   const libraries: { [name: string]: string } = {};
 
   for (const fileName of Object.keys(require.cache)) {
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/cdk/lib/stack-trace.ts b/packages/@aws-cdk/cdk/lib/stack-trace.ts
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000..ab47cf2d47a99
--- /dev/null
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/cdk/lib/stack-trace.ts
@@ -0,0 +1,16 @@
+// tslint:disable-next-line:ban-types
+export function createStackTrace(below?: Function): string[] {
+  below = below || createStackTrace; // hide myself if nothing else
+  const object = { stack: '' };
+  const previousLimit = Error.stackTraceLimit;
+  try {
+    Error.stackTraceLimit = Number.MAX_SAFE_INTEGER;
+    Error.captureStackTrace(object, below);
+  } finally {
+    Error.stackTraceLimit = previousLimit;
+  }
+  if (!object.stack) {
+    return [];
+  }
+  return object.stack.split('\n').slice(1).map(s => s.replace(/^\s*at\s+/, ''));
+}
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/cdk/lib/stack.ts b/packages/@aws-cdk/cdk/lib/stack.ts
index 63b9d5f367311..572736e9c782f 100644
--- a/packages/@aws-cdk/cdk/lib/stack.ts
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/cdk/lib/stack.ts
@@ -1,10 +1,11 @@
 import cxapi = require('@aws-cdk/cx-api');
+import fs = require('fs');
+import path = require('path');
 import { App } from './app';
 import { CfnParameter } from './cfn-parameter';
 import { Construct, IConstruct, PATH_SEP } from './construct';
 import { Environment } from './environment';
 import { HashedAddressingScheme, IAddressingScheme, LogicalIDs } from './logical-id';
-import { ISynthesisSession } from './synthesis';
 import { makeUniqueId } from './uniqueid';
 
 export interface StackProps {
@@ -161,7 +162,7 @@ export class Stack extends Construct {
   public get environment() {
     const account = this.env.account || 'unknown-account';
     const region = this.env.region || 'unknown-region';
-    return `aws://${account}/${region}`;
+    return cxapi.EnvironmentUtils.format(account, region);
   }
 
   /**
@@ -169,13 +170,13 @@ export class Stack extends Construct {
    *
    * @returns The Resource or undefined if not found
    */
-  public findResource(path: string): CfnResource | undefined {
-    const r = this.node.findChild(path);
+  public findResource(constructPath: string): CfnResource | undefined {
+    const r = this.node.findChild(constructPath);
     if (!r) { return undefined; }
 
     // found an element, check if it's a resource (duck-type)
     if (!('resourceType' in r)) {
-      throw new Error(`Found a stack element for ${path} but it is not a resource: ${r.toString()}`);
+      throw new Error(`Found a stack element for ${constructPath} but it is not a resource: ${r.toString()}`);
     }
 
     return r as CfnResource;
@@ -491,23 +492,26 @@ export class Stack extends Construct {
     }
   }
 
-  protected synthesize(session: ISynthesisSession): void {
+  protected synthesize(builder: cxapi.CloudAssemblyBuilder): void {
     const template = `${this.name}.template.json`;
 
     // write the CloudFormation template as a JSON file
-    session.store.writeJson(template, this._toCloudFormation());
+    const outPath = path.join(builder.outdir, template);
+    fs.writeFileSync(outPath, JSON.stringify(this._toCloudFormation(), undefined, 2));
 
     const deps = this.dependencies().map(s => s.name);
     const meta = this.collectMetadata();
 
+    const properties: cxapi.AwsCloudFormationStackProperties = {
+      templateFile: template,
+      parameters: Object.keys(this.parameterValues).length > 0 ? this.node.resolve(this.parameterValues) : undefined
+    };
+
     // add an artifact that represents this stack
-    session.addArtifact(this.name, {
+    builder.addArtifact(this.name, {
       type: cxapi.ArtifactType.AwsCloudFormationStack,
       environment: this.environment,
-      properties: {
-        templateFile: template,
-        parameters: Object.keys(this.parameterValues).length > 0 ? this.node.resolve(this.parameterValues) : undefined
-      },
+      properties,
       autoDeploy: this.autoDeploy ? undefined : false,
       dependencies: deps.length > 0 ? deps : undefined,
       metadata: Object.keys(meta).length > 0 ? meta : undefined,
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/cdk/lib/synthesis.ts b/packages/@aws-cdk/cdk/lib/synthesis.ts
index 47d2cfdbd581e..32a684683b6f2 100644
--- a/packages/@aws-cdk/cdk/lib/synthesis.ts
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/cdk/lib/synthesis.ts
@@ -1,30 +1,16 @@
-import cxapi = require('@aws-cdk/cx-api');
-import fs = require('fs');
-import os = require('os');
-import path = require('path');
+import { BuildOptions, CloudAssembly, CloudAssemblyBuilder } from '@aws-cdk/cx-api';
 import { ConstructOrder, IConstruct } from './construct';
-import { collectRuntimeInformation } from './runtime-info';
-import { filterUndefined } from './util';
 
 export interface ISynthesizable {
-  synthesize(session: ISynthesisSession): void;
+  synthesize(session: CloudAssemblyBuilder): void;
 }
 
-export interface ISynthesisSession {
-  readonly store: ISessionStore;
-  readonly manifest: cxapi.AssemblyManifest;
-  addArtifact(id: string, droplet: cxapi.Artifact): void;
-  addBuildStep(id: string, step: cxapi.BuildStep): void;
-  tryGetArtifact(id: string): cxapi.Artifact | undefined;
-  getArtifact(id: string): cxapi.Artifact;
-}
-
-export interface SynthesisOptions extends ManifestOptions {
+export interface SynthesisOptions extends BuildOptions {
   /**
    * The file store used for this session.
-   * @default InMemoryStore
+   * @default - creates a temporary directory
    */
-  readonly store?: ISessionStore;
+  readonly outdir?: string;
 
   /**
    * Whether synthesis should skip the validation phase.
@@ -34,8 +20,8 @@ export interface SynthesisOptions extends ManifestOptions {
 }
 
 export class Synthesizer {
-  public synthesize(root: IConstruct, options: SynthesisOptions = { }): ISynthesisSession {
-    const session = new SynthesisSession(options);
+  public synthesize(root: IConstruct, options: SynthesisOptions = { }): CloudAssembly {
+    const session = new CloudAssemblyBuilder(options.outdir);
 
     // the three holy phases of synthesis: prepare, validate and synthesize
 
@@ -54,357 +40,19 @@ export class Synthesizer {
 
     // synthesize (leaves first)
     for (const c of root.node.findAll(ConstructOrder.PostOrder)) {
-      if (SynthesisSession.isSynthesizable(c)) {
+      if (isSynthesizable(c)) {
         c.synthesize(session);
       }
     }
 
     // write session manifest and lock store
-    session.close(options);
-
-    return session;
-  }
-}
-
-export class SynthesisSession implements ISynthesisSession {
-  /**
-   * @returns true if `obj` implements `ISynthesizable`.
-   */
-  public static isSynthesizable(obj: any): obj is ISynthesizable {
-    return 'synthesize' in obj;
-  }
-
-  public readonly store: ISessionStore;
-
-  private readonly artifacts: { [id: string]: cxapi.Artifact } = { };
-  private readonly buildSteps: { [id: string]: cxapi.BuildStep } = { };
-  private _manifest?: cxapi.AssemblyManifest;
-
-  constructor(options: SynthesisOptions) {
-    this.store = options.store || new InMemoryStore();
-  }
-
-  public get manifest() {
-    if (!this._manifest) {
-      throw new Error(`Cannot read assembly manifest before the session has been finalized`);
-    }
-
-    return this._manifest;
-  }
-
-  public addArtifact(id: string, artifact: cxapi.Artifact): void {
-    cxapi.validateArtifact(artifact);
-    this.artifacts[id] = filterUndefined(artifact);
-  }
-
-  public tryGetArtifact(id: string): cxapi.Artifact | undefined {
-    return this.artifacts[id];
-  }
-
-  public getArtifact(id: string): cxapi.Artifact {
-    const artifact = this.tryGetArtifact(id);
-    if (!artifact) {
-      throw new Error(`Cannot find artifact ${id}`);
-    }
-    return artifact;
-  }
-
-  public addBuildStep(id: string, step: cxapi.BuildStep) {
-    if (id in this.buildSteps) {
-      throw new Error(`Build step ${id} already exists`);
-    }
-    this.buildSteps[id] = filterUndefined(step);
-  }
-
-  public close(options: ManifestOptions = { }): cxapi.AssemblyManifest {
-    const legacyManifest = options.legacyManifest !== undefined ? options.legacyManifest : false;
-    const runtimeInfo = options.runtimeInformation !== undefined ? options.runtimeInformation : true;
-
-    const manifest: cxapi.AssemblyManifest = this._manifest = filterUndefined({
-      version: cxapi.PROTO_RESPONSE_VERSION,
-      artifacts: this.artifacts,
-      runtime: runtimeInfo ? collectRuntimeInformation() : undefined
-    });
-
-    this.store.writeFile(cxapi.MANIFEST_FILE, JSON.stringify(manifest, undefined, 2));
-
-    // write build manifest if we have build steps
-    if (Object.keys(this.buildSteps).length > 0) {
-      const buildManifest: cxapi.BuildManifest = {
-        steps: this.buildSteps
-      };
-
-      this.store.writeFile(cxapi.BUILD_FILE, JSON.stringify(buildManifest, undefined, 2));
-    }
-
-    if (legacyManifest) {
-      const legacy: cxapi.SynthesizeResponse = {
-        ...manifest,
-        stacks: renderLegacyStacks(manifest, this.store)
-      };
-
-      // render the legacy manifest (cdk.out) which also contains a "stacks" attribute with all the rendered stacks.
-      this.store.writeFile(cxapi.OUTFILE_NAME, JSON.stringify(legacy, undefined, 2));
-    }
-
-    this.store.lock();
-
-    return manifest;
+    return session.build(options);
   }
 }
 
-export interface ManifestOptions {
-  /**
-   * Emit the legacy manifest (`cdk.out`) when the session is closed (alongside `manifest.json`).
-   * @default false
-   */
-  readonly legacyManifest?: boolean;
-
-  /**
-   * Include runtime information (module versions) in manifest.
-   * @default true
-   */
-  readonly runtimeInformation?: boolean;
-}
-
-export interface ISessionStore {
-  /**
-   * Creates a directory and returns it's full path.
-   * @param directoryName The name of the directory to create.
-   * @throws if a directory by that name already exists in the session or if the session has already been finalized.
-   */
-  mkdir(directoryName: string): string;
-
-  /**
-   * Returns the list of files in a directory.
-   * @param directoryName The name of the artifact
-   * @throws if there is no directory artifact under this name
-   */
-  readdir(directoryName: string): string[];
-
-  /**
-   * Writes a file into the store.
-   * @param artifactName The name of the file.
-   * @param data The contents of the file.
-   */
-  writeFile(artifactName: string, data: any): void;
-
-  /**
-   * Writes a formatted JSON output file to the store
-   * @param artifactName the name of the artifact
-   * @param json the JSON object
-   */
-  writeJson(artifactName: string, json: any): void;
-
-  /**
-   * Reads a file from the store.
-   * @param fileName The name of the file.
-   * @throws if the file is not found
-   */
-  readFile(fileName: string): any;
-
-  /**
-   * Reads a JSON object from the store.
-   */
-  readJson(fileName: string): any;
-
-  /**
-   * @returns true if the file `fileName` exists in the store.
-   * @param name The name of the file or directory to look up.
-   */
-  exists(name: string): boolean;
-
-  /**
-   * List all top-level files that were emitted to the store.
-   */
-  list(): string[];
-
-  /**
-   * Do not allow further writes into the store.
-   */
-  lock(): void;
-}
-
-export interface FileSystemStoreOptions {
-  /**
-   * The output directory for synthesis artifacts
-   */
-  readonly outdir: string;
-}
-
 /**
- * Can be used to prepare and emit synthesis artifacts into an output directory.
+ * @returns true if `obj` implements `ISynthesizable`.
  */
-export class FileSystemStore implements ISessionStore {
-  private readonly outdir: string;
-  private locked = false;
-
-  constructor(options: FileSystemStoreOptions) {
-    this.outdir = options.outdir;
-    return;
-  }
-
-  public writeFile(fileName: string, data: any) {
-    this.canWrite(fileName);
-
-    const p = this.pathForArtifact(fileName);
-    fs.writeFileSync(p, data);
-  }
-
-  public writeJson(fileName: string, json: any) {
-    this.writeFile(fileName, JSON.stringify(json, undefined, 2));
-  }
-
-  public readFile(fileName: string): any {
-    const p = this.pathForArtifact(fileName);
-    if (!fs.existsSync(p)) {
-      throw new Error(`File not found: ${p}`);
-    }
-
-    return fs.readFileSync(p);
-  }
-
-  public readJson(fileName: string): any {
-    return JSON.parse(this.readFile(fileName).toString());
-  }
-
-  public exists(name: string): boolean {
-    const p = this.pathForArtifact(name);
-    return fs.existsSync(p);
-  }
-
-  public mkdir(directoryName: string): string {
-    this.canWrite(directoryName);
-    const p = this.pathForArtifact(directoryName);
-    fs.mkdirSync(p);
-    return p;
-  }
-
-  public readdir(directoryName: string): string[] {
-    if (!this.exists(directoryName)) {
-      throw new Error(`${directoryName} not found`);
-    }
-
-    const p = this.pathForArtifact(directoryName);
-    return fs.readdirSync(p);
-  }
-
-  public list(): string[] {
-    return fs.readdirSync(this.outdir).sort();
-  }
-
-  public lock() {
-    this.locked = true;
-  }
-
-  private pathForArtifact(id: string) {
-    return path.join(this.outdir, id);
-  }
-
-  private canWrite(artifactName: string) {
-    if (this.exists(artifactName)) {
-      throw new Error(`An artifact named ${artifactName} was already written to this session`);
-    }
-    if (this.locked) {
-      throw new Error('Session has already been finalized');
-    }
-  }
-}
-
-export class InMemoryStore implements ISessionStore {
-  private files: { [fileName: string]: any } = { };
-  private dirs: { [dirName: string]: string } = { }; // value is path to a temporary directory
-
-  private locked = false;
-
-  public writeFile(fileName: string, data: any): void {
-    this.canWrite(fileName);
-    this.files[fileName] = data;
-  }
-
-  public writeJson(fileName: string, json: any): void {
-    this.writeFile(fileName, JSON.stringify(json, undefined, 2));
-  }
-
-  public readFile(fileName: string) {
-    if (!(fileName in this.files)) {
-      throw new Error(`${fileName} not found`);
-    }
-    return this.files[fileName];
-  }
-
-  public readJson(fileName: string): any {
-    return JSON.parse(this.readFile(fileName).toString());
-  }
-
-  public exists(name: string) {
-    return name in this.files || name in this.dirs;
-  }
-
-  public mkdir(directoryName: string): string {
-    this.canWrite(directoryName);
-
-    const p = fs.mkdtempSync(path.join(os.tmpdir(), directoryName));
-    this.dirs[directoryName] = p;
-    return p;
-  }
-
-  public readdir(directoryName: string): string[] {
-    if (!this.exists(directoryName)) {
-      throw new Error(`${directoryName} not found`);
-    }
-
-    const p = this.dirs[directoryName];
-    return fs.readdirSync(p);
-  }
-
-  public list(): string[] {
-    return [ ...Object.keys(this.files), ...Object.keys(this.dirs) ].sort();
-  }
-
-  public lock() {
-    this.locked = true;
-  }
-
-  private canWrite(artifactName: string) {
-    if (this.exists(artifactName)) {
-      throw new Error(`An artifact named ${artifactName} was already written to this session`);
-    }
-    if (this.locked) {
-      throw new Error('Session has already been finalized');
-    }
-  }
-}
-
-export function renderLegacyStacks(manifest: cxapi.AssemblyManifest, store: ISessionStore) {
-  // special case for backwards compat. build a list of stacks for the manifest
-  const stacks = new Array<cxapi.SynthesizedStack>();
-  const artifacts = manifest.artifacts || { };
-
-  for (const [ id, artifact ] of Object.entries(artifacts)) {
-    if (artifact.type === cxapi.ArtifactType.AwsCloudFormationStack) {
-      const templateFile = artifact.properties && artifact.properties.templateFile;
-      if (!templateFile) {
-        throw new Error(`Invalid cloudformation artifact. Missing "template" property`);
-      }
-      const template = store.readJson(templateFile);
-
-      const match = cxapi.AWS_ENV_REGEX.exec(artifact.environment);
-      if (!match) {
-        throw new Error(`"environment" must match regex: ${cxapi.AWS_ENV_REGEX}`);
-      }
-
-      stacks.push(filterUndefined({
-        name: id,
-        environment: { name: artifact.environment.substr('aws://'.length), account: match[1], region: match[2] },
-        template,
-        metadata: artifact.metadata || {},
-        autoDeploy: artifact.autoDeploy,
-        dependsOn: artifact.dependencies && artifact.dependencies.length > 0 ? artifact.dependencies : undefined,
-        missing: artifact.missing
-      }));
-    }
-  }
-
-  return stacks;
+function isSynthesizable(obj: any): obj is ISynthesizable {
+  return 'synthesize' in obj;
 }
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/cdk/lib/token.ts b/packages/@aws-cdk/cdk/lib/token.ts
index 7d83b4dcc2587..d7d64df131c61 100644
--- a/packages/@aws-cdk/cdk/lib/token.ts
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/cdk/lib/token.ts
@@ -1,5 +1,6 @@
 import { IConstruct } from "./construct";
 import { unresolved } from "./encoding";
+import { createStackTrace } from './stack-trace';
 import { TokenMap } from "./token-map";
 
 /**
@@ -36,6 +37,11 @@ export class Token {
     return unresolved(obj);
   }
 
+  /**
+   * The captured stack trace which represents the location in which this token was created.
+   */
+  protected readonly trace: string[];
+
   private tokenStringification?: string;
   private tokenListification?: string[];
   private tokenNumberification?: number;
@@ -60,6 +66,7 @@ export class Token {
    * @param displayName A human-readable display hint for this Token
    */
   constructor(private readonly valueOrFunction?: any, private readonly displayName?: string) {
+    this.trace = createStackTrace();
   }
 
   /**
@@ -134,7 +141,7 @@ export class Token {
   public toList(): string[] {
     const valueType = typeof this.valueOrFunction;
     if (valueType === 'string' || valueType === 'number' || valueType === 'boolean') {
-      throw new Error('Got a literal Token value; only intrinsics can ever evaluate to lists.');
+      throw this.newError('Got a literal Token value; only intrinsics can ever evaluate to lists.');
     }
 
     if (this.tokenListification === undefined) {
@@ -159,13 +166,21 @@ export class Token {
       // registering a Token.
       if (valueType === 'number') { return this.valueOrFunction; }
       if (valueType !== 'function') {
-        throw new Error(`Token value is not number or lazy, can't represent as number: ${this.valueOrFunction}`);
+        throw this.newError(`Token value is not number or lazy, can't represent as number: ${this.valueOrFunction}`);
       }
       this.tokenNumberification = TokenMap.instance().registerNumber(this);
     }
 
     return this.tokenNumberification;
   }
+
+  /**
+   * Creates a throwable Error object that contains the token creation stack trace.
+   * @param message Error message
+   */
+  protected newError(message: string): any {
+    return new Error(`${message}\nToken created:\n    at ${this.trace.join('\n    at ')}\nError thrown:`);
+  }
 }
 
 /**
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/cdk/test/test.app.ts b/packages/@aws-cdk/cdk/test/test.app.ts
index 04c8995d0932b..77ee96c813bb1 100644
--- a/packages/@aws-cdk/cdk/test/test.app.ts
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/cdk/test/test.app.ts
@@ -1,21 +1,22 @@
 import cxapi = require('@aws-cdk/cx-api');
 import { Test } from 'nodeunit';
 import { CfnResource, Construct, Stack, StackProps } from '../lib';
-import { App } from '../lib/app';
+import { App, AppProps } from '../lib/app';
 
-function withApp(context: { [key: string]: any } | undefined, block: (app: App) => void): cxapi.SynthesizeResponse {
-  const app = new App({ context });
+function withApp(props: AppProps, block: (app: App) => void): cxapi.CloudAssembly {
+  const app = new App({
+    runtimeInfo: false,
+    stackTraces: false,
+    ...props,
+  });
 
   block(app);
 
-  const session = app.run();
-
-  // return the legacy manifest
-  return session.store.readJson(cxapi.OUTFILE_NAME);
+  return app.run();
 }
 
-function synth(context?: { [key: string]: any }): cxapi.SynthesizeResponse {
-  return withApp(context, app => {
+function synth(context?: { [key: string]: any }): cxapi.CloudAssembly {
+  return withApp({ context }, app => {
     const stack1 = new Stack(app, 'stack1', { env: { account: '12345', region: 'us-east-1' } });
     new CfnResource(stack1, 's1c1', { type: 'DummyResource', properties: { Prop1: 'Prop1' } });
     const r2 = new CfnResource(stack1, 's1c2', { type: 'DummyResource', properties: { Foo: 123 } });
@@ -33,12 +34,9 @@ function synth(context?: { [key: string]: any }): cxapi.SynthesizeResponse {
   });
 }
 
-function synthStack(name: string, includeMetadata: boolean = false, context?: any): cxapi.SynthesizedStack {
+function synthStack(name: string, includeMetadata: boolean = false, context?: any): cxapi.CloudFormationStackArtifact {
   const response = synth(context);
-  const stack = response.stacks.find(s => s.name === name);
-  if (!stack) {
-    throw new Error(`Stack ${name} not found`);
-  }
+  const stack = response.getStack(name);
 
   if (!includeMetadata) {
     delete (stack as any).metadata;
@@ -50,289 +48,257 @@ function synthStack(name: string, includeMetadata: boolean = false, context?: an
 export = {
   'synthesizes all stacks and returns synthesis result'(test: Test) {
     const response = synth();
+    delete (response as any).dir;
+
+    test.deepEqual(response.stacks.length, 2);
+
+    const stack1 = response.stacks[0];
+    test.deepEqual(stack1.name, 'stack1');
+    test.deepEqual(stack1.environment.account, 12345);
+    test.deepEqual(stack1.environment.region, 'us-east-1');
+    test.deepEqual(stack1.environment.name, 'aws://12345/us-east-1');
+    test.deepEqual(stack1.template, { Resources:
+      { s1c1: { Type: 'DummyResource', Properties: { Prop1: 'Prop1' } },
+        s1c2: { Type: 'DummyResource', Properties: { Foo: 123 } } } });
+    test.deepEqual(stack1.metadata, {
+      '/stack1': [{ type: 'meta', data: 111 }],
+      '/stack1/s1c1': [{ type: 'aws:cdk:logicalId', data: 's1c1' }],
+      '/stack1/s1c2':
+        [{ type: 'aws:cdk:logicalId', data: 's1c2' },
+        { type: 'aws:cdk:warning', data: 'warning1' },
+        { type: 'aws:cdk:warning', data: 'warning2' }],
+      '/': [{ type: 'applevel', data: 123 }]
+    });
 
-    // clean up metadata so assertion will be sane
-    response.stacks.forEach(s => delete (s as any).metadata);
-    delete (response as any).runtime;
-    delete (response as any).artifacts;
-
-    test.deepEqual(response, {
-      version: '0.19.0',
-      stacks:
-      [ { name: 'stack1',
-          environment:
-           { name: '12345/us-east-1',
-             account: '12345',
-             region: 'us-east-1' },
-          template:
-           { Resources:
-              { s1c1: { Type: 'DummyResource', Properties: { Prop1: 'Prop1' } },
-                s1c2: { Type: 'DummyResource', Properties: { Foo: 123 } } } } },
-        { name: 'stack2',
-          environment:
-           { name: 'unknown-account/unknown-region',
-             account: 'unknown-account',
-             region: 'unknown-region' },
-          template:
-           { Resources:
-              { s2c1: { Type: 'DummyResource', Properties: { Prog2: 'Prog2' } },
-                s1c2r1D1791C01: { Type: 'ResourceType1' },
-                s1c2r25F685FFF: { Type: 'ResourceType2' } } } } ] });
-    test.done();
-  },
-
-  'synth(name) can be used programmatically'(test: Test) {
-    const prog = new App();
-    const stack = new Stack(prog, 'MyStack');
-    new CfnResource(stack, 'MyResource', { type: 'MyResourceType' });
-
-    test.throws(() => prog.synthesizeStacks(['foo']), /foo/);
-
-    test.deepEqual(prog.synthesizeStack('MyStack').template,
-      { Resources: { MyResource: { Type: 'MyResourceType' } } });
-    test.done();
-  },
-
-  'synth(name) also collects metadata from all constructs in the stack'(test: Test) {
-    const stack = synthStack('stack1', true);
-
-    const output = stack.metadata;
-    stripStackTraces(output);
-
-    test.ok(output['/'], 'app-level metadata is included under "."');
-    test.equal(output['/'][0].type, 'applevel');
-    test.equal(output['/'][0].data, 123);
-
-    test.ok(output['/stack1'], 'the construct "stack1" has metadata');
-    test.equal(output['/stack1'][0].type, 'meta');
-    test.equal(output['/stack1'][0].data, 111);
-    test.ok(output['/stack1'][0].trace.length > 0, 'trace contains multiple entries');
-
-    test.ok(output['/stack1/s1c2']);
-    test.equal(output['/stack1/s1c2'].length, 2, 'two entries');
-    test.equal(output['/stack1/s1c2'][0].data, 'warning1');
-
-    const stack2 = synthStack('stack2', true);
-    const output2 = stack2.metadata;
-
-    test.ok(output2['/stack2/s1c2']);
-    test.equal(output2['/stack2/s1c2'][0].type, 'meta');
-    test.deepEqual(output2['/stack2/s1c2'][0].data, { key: 'value' });
-
-    test.done();
-  },
-
-  'context can be passed through CDK_CONTEXT'(test: Test) {
-    process.env[cxapi.CONTEXT_ENV] = JSON.stringify({
-      key1: 'val1',
-      key2: 'val2'
+    const stack2 = response.stacks[1];
+    test.deepEqual(stack2.name, 'stack2');
+    test.deepEqual(stack2.environment.name, 'aws://unknown-account/unknown-region');
+    test.deepEqual(stack2.template, { Resources:
+      { s2c1: { Type: 'DummyResource', Properties: { Prog2: 'Prog2' } },
+        s1c2r1D1791C01: { Type: 'ResourceType1' },
+        s1c2r25F685FFF: { Type: 'ResourceType2' } } });
+    test.deepEqual(stack2.metadata, {
+      '/stack2/s2c1': [{ type: 'aws:cdk:logicalId', data: 's2c1' }],
+      '/stack2/s1c2': [{ type: 'meta', data: { key: 'value' } }],
+      '/stack2/s1c2/r1':
+        [{ type: 'aws:cdk:logicalId', data: 's1c2r1D1791C01' }],
+      '/stack2/s1c2/r2':
+        [{ type: 'aws:cdk:logicalId', data: 's1c2r25F685FFF' }],
+      '/': [{ type: 'applevel', data: 123 }]
     });
-    const prog = new App();
-    test.deepEqual(prog.node.getContext('key1'), 'val1');
-    test.deepEqual(prog.node.getContext('key2'), 'val2');
-    test.done();
-  },
 
-  'context from the command line can be used when creating the stack'(test: Test) {
-    const output = synthStack('stack2', false, { ctx1: 'HELLO' });
+    test.done();
+},
 
-    test.deepEqual(output.template, {
-      Resources: {
-        s2c1: {
+'context can be passed through CDK_CONTEXT'(test: Test) {
+  process.env[cxapi.CONTEXT_ENV] = JSON.stringify({
+    key1: 'val1',
+    key2: 'val2'
+  });
+  const prog = new App();
+  test.deepEqual(prog.node.getContext('key1'), 'val1');
+  test.deepEqual(prog.node.getContext('key2'), 'val2');
+  test.done();
+},
+
+'context from the command line can be used when creating the stack'(test: Test) {
+  const output = synthStack('stack2', false, { ctx1: 'HELLO' });
+
+  test.deepEqual(output.template, {
+    Resources: {
+      s2c1: {
         Type: "DummyResource",
         Properties: {
           Prog2: "Prog2"
         }
-        },
-        s1c2r1D1791C01: {
+      },
+      s1c2r1D1791C01: {
         Type: "ResourceType1"
-        },
-        s1c2r25F685FFF: {
+      },
+      s1c2r25F685FFF: {
         Type: "ResourceType2",
         Properties: {
           FromContext: "HELLO"
         }
-        }
-      }
-    });
-    test.done();
-  },
-
-  'setContext(k,v) can be used to set context programmatically'(test: Test) {
-    const prog = new App();
-    prog.node.setContext('foo', 'bar');
-    test.deepEqual(prog.node.getContext('foo'), 'bar');
-    test.done();
-  },
-
-  'setContext(k,v) cannot be called after stacks have been added because stacks may use the context'(test: Test) {
-    const prog = new App();
-    new Stack(prog, 's1');
-    test.throws(() => prog.node.setContext('foo', 'bar'));
-    test.done();
-  },
-
-  'app.synthesizeStack(stack) performs validation first (app.validateAll()) and if there are errors, it returns the errors'(test: Test) {
-
-    class Child extends Construct {
-      protected validate() {
-        return [ `Error from ${this.node.id}` ];
       }
     }
+  });
+  test.done();
+},
+
+'setContext(k,v) can be used to set context programmatically'(test: Test) {
+  const prog = new App();
+  prog.node.setContext('foo', 'bar');
+  test.deepEqual(prog.node.getContext('foo'), 'bar');
+  test.done();
+},
+
+'setContext(k,v) cannot be called after stacks have been added because stacks may use the context'(test: Test) {
+  const prog = new App();
+  new Stack(prog, 's1');
+  test.throws(() => prog.node.setContext('foo', 'bar'));
+  test.done();
+},
+
+'app.run() performs validation first and if there are errors, it returns the errors'(test: Test) {
+
+  class Child extends Construct {
+    protected validate() {
+      return [`Error from ${this.node.id}`];
+    }
+  }
 
-    class Parent extends Stack {
+  class Parent extends Stack {
 
-    }
+  }
 
-    const app = new App();
+  const app = new App();
 
-    const parent = new Parent(app, 'Parent');
-    new Child(parent, 'C1');
-    new Child(parent, 'C2');
+  const parent = new Parent(app, 'Parent');
+  new Child(parent, 'C1');
+  new Child(parent, 'C2');
 
-    test.throws(() => {
-      app.synthesizeStacks(['Parent']);
-    }, /Validation failed with the following errors/);
+  test.throws(() => app.run(), /Validation failed with the following errors/);
 
-    test.done();
-  },
-
-  'app.synthesizeStack(stack) will return a list of missing contextual information'(test: Test) {
-    class MyStack extends Stack {
-      constructor(scope: App, id: string, props?: StackProps) {
-        super(scope, id, props);
-
-        this.reportMissingContext('missing-context-key', {
-          provider: 'fake',
-          props: {
-            account: '12345689012',
-            region: 'ab-north-1',
-          },
-        },
-        );
-
-        this.reportMissingContext('missing-context-key-2', {
-          provider: 'fake2',
-          props: {
-            foo: 'bar',
-            account: '12345689012',
-            region: 'ab-south-1',
-          },
-        },
-        );
-      }
-    }
+  test.done();
+},
 
-    const response = withApp(undefined, app => {
-      new MyStack(app, 'MyStack');
-    });
+'app.synthesizeStack(stack) will return a list of missing contextual information'(test: Test) {
+  class MyStack extends Stack {
+    constructor(scope: App, id: string, props?: StackProps) {
+      super(scope, id, props);
 
-    test.deepEqual(response.stacks[0].missing, {
-      "missing-context-key": {
+      this.reportMissingContext('missing-context-key', {
         provider: 'fake',
         props: {
           account: '12345689012',
           region: 'ab-north-1',
         },
       },
-      "missing-context-key-2": {
+      );
+
+      this.reportMissingContext('missing-context-key-2', {
         provider: 'fake2',
         props: {
+          foo: 'bar',
           account: '12345689012',
           region: 'ab-south-1',
-          foo: 'bar',
         },
       },
-    });
+      );
+    }
+  }
 
-    test.done();
-  },
+  const response = withApp({}, app => {
+    new MyStack(app, 'MyStack');
+  });
 
-  'runtime library versions disabled'(test: Test) {
-    const context: any = {};
-    context[cxapi.DISABLE_VERSION_REPORTING] = true;
+  test.deepEqual(response.stacks[0].missing, {
+    "missing-context-key": {
+      provider: 'fake',
+      props: {
+        account: '12345689012',
+        region: 'ab-north-1',
+      },
+    },
+    "missing-context-key-2": {
+      provider: 'fake2',
+      props: {
+        account: '12345689012',
+        region: 'ab-south-1',
+        foo: 'bar',
+      },
+    },
+  });
 
-    const response = withApp(context, app => {
-      const stack = new Stack(app, 'stack1');
-      new CfnResource(stack, 'MyResource', { type: 'Resource::Type' });
-    });
+  test.done();
+},
 
-    test.equals(response.runtime, undefined);
-    test.done();
-  },
+'runtime library versions disabled'(test: Test) {
+  const context: any = {};
+  context[cxapi.DISABLE_VERSION_REPORTING] = true;
 
-  'runtime library versions'(test: Test) {
-    const response = withApp({}, app => {
-      const stack = new Stack(app, 'stack1');
-      new CfnResource(stack, 'MyResource', { type: 'Resource::Type' });
-    });
+  const response = withApp(context, app => {
+    const stack = new Stack(app, 'stack1');
+    new CfnResource(stack, 'MyResource', { type: 'Resource::Type' });
+  });
 
-    const libs = (response.runtime && response.runtime.libraries) || { };
+  test.deepEqual(response.runtime, { libraries: {} });
+  test.done();
+},
 
-    const version = require('../package.json').version;
-    test.deepEqual(libs['@aws-cdk/cdk'], version);
-    test.deepEqual(libs['@aws-cdk/cx-api'], version);
-    test.deepEqual(libs['jsii-runtime'], `node.js/${process.version}`);
-    test.done();
-  },
+'runtime library versions'(test: Test) {
+  const response = withApp({ runtimeInfo: true }, app => {
+    const stack = new Stack(app, 'stack1');
+    new CfnResource(stack, 'MyResource', { type: 'Resource::Type' });
+  });
 
-  'jsii-runtime version loaded from JSII_AGENT'(test: Test) {
-    process.env.JSII_AGENT = 'Java/1.2.3.4';
+  const libs = (response.runtime && response.runtime.libraries) || {};
 
-    const response = withApp({}, app => {
-      const stack = new Stack(app, 'stack1');
-      new CfnResource(stack, 'MyResource', { type: 'Resource::Type' });
-    });
+  const version = require('../package.json').version;
+  test.deepEqual(libs['@aws-cdk/cdk'], version);
+  test.deepEqual(libs['@aws-cdk/cx-api'], version);
+  test.deepEqual(libs['jsii-runtime'], `node.js/${process.version}`);
+  test.done();
+},
 
-    const libs = (response.runtime && response.runtime.libraries) || { };
-    test.deepEqual(libs['jsii-runtime'], `Java/1.2.3.4`);
+'jsii-runtime version loaded from JSII_AGENT'(test: Test) {
+  process.env.JSII_AGENT = 'Java/1.2.3.4';
 
-    delete process.env.JSII_AGENT;
-    test.done();
-  },
+  const response = withApp({ runtimeInfo: true }, app => {
+    const stack = new Stack(app, 'stack1');
+    new CfnResource(stack, 'MyResource', { type: 'Resource::Type' });
+  });
 
-  'version reporting includes only @aws-cdk, aws-cdk and jsii libraries'(test: Test) {
-    const response = withApp({}, app => {
-      const stack = new Stack(app, 'stack1');
-      new CfnResource(stack, 'MyResource', { type: 'Resource::Type' });
-    });
+  const libs = (response.runtime && response.runtime.libraries) || {};
+  test.deepEqual(libs['jsii-runtime'], `Java/1.2.3.4`);
 
-    const libs = (response.runtime && response.runtime.libraries) || { };
+  delete process.env.JSII_AGENT;
+  test.done();
+},
 
-    const version = require('../package.json').version;
-    test.deepEqual(libs, {
-      '@aws-cdk/cdk': version,
-      '@aws-cdk/cx-api': version,
-      'jsii-runtime': `node.js/${process.version}`
-    });
+'version reporting includes only @aws-cdk, aws-cdk and jsii libraries'(test: Test) {
+  const response = withApp({ runtimeInfo: true }, app => {
+    const stack = new Stack(app, 'stack1');
+    new CfnResource(stack, 'MyResource', { type: 'Resource::Type' });
+  });
 
-    test.done();
-  },
+  const libs = (response.runtime && response.runtime.libraries) || {};
 
-  'deep stack is shown and synthesized properly'(test: Test) {
-    // WHEN
-    const response = withApp(undefined, (app) => {
-      const topStack = new Stack(app, 'Stack');
-      const topResource = new CfnResource(topStack, 'Res', { type: 'CDK::TopStack::Resource' });
+  const version = require('../package.json').version;
+  test.deepEqual(libs, {
+    '@aws-cdk/cdk': version,
+    '@aws-cdk/cx-api': version,
+    'jsii-runtime': `node.js/${process.version}`
+  });
 
-      const bottomStack = new Stack(topResource, 'Stack');
-      new CfnResource(bottomStack, 'Res', { type: 'CDK::BottomStack::Resource' });
-    });
+  test.done();
+},
 
-    // THEN
-    test.deepEqual(response.stacks.map(s => ({ name: s.name, template: s.template })), [
-      {
-        name: 'StackResStack7E4AFA86',
-        template: { Resources: { Res: { Type: 'CDK::BottomStack::Resource' } } },
-      },
-      {
-        name: 'Stack',
-        template: { Resources: { Res: { Type: 'CDK::TopStack::Resource' } } },
-      }
-    ]);
+'deep stack is shown and synthesized properly'(test: Test) {
+  // WHEN
+  const response = withApp({}, (app) => {
+    const topStack = new Stack(app, 'Stack');
+    const topResource = new CfnResource(topStack, 'Res', { type: 'CDK::TopStack::Resource' });
 
-    test.done();
-  },
+    const bottomStack = new Stack(topResource, 'Stack');
+    new CfnResource(bottomStack, 'Res', { type: 'CDK::BottomStack::Resource' });
+  });
+
+  // THEN
+  test.deepEqual(response.stacks.map(s => ({ name: s.name, template: s.template })), [
+    {
+      name: 'Stack',
+      template: { Resources: { Res: { Type: 'CDK::TopStack::Resource' } } },
+    },
+    {
+      name: 'StackResStack7E4AFA86',
+      template: { Resources: { Res: { Type: 'CDK::BottomStack::Resource' } } },
+    },
+  ]);
+
+  test.done();
+},
 };
 
 class MyConstruct extends Construct {
@@ -343,12 +309,3 @@ class MyConstruct extends Construct {
     new CfnResource(this, 'r2', { type: 'ResourceType2', properties: { FromContext: this.node.getContext('ctx1') } });
   }
 }
-
-/**
- * Strip stack traces from metadata
- */
-function stripStackTraces(meta: cxapi.StackMetadata) {
-  for (const key of Object.keys(meta)) {
-    meta[key] = meta[key].filter(entry => entry.type !== 'aws:cdk:logicalId');
-  }
-}
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/cdk/test/test.construct.ts b/packages/@aws-cdk/cdk/test/test.construct.ts
index d49b2cb3b7fb8..b314b3b42f64e 100644
--- a/packages/@aws-cdk/cdk/test/test.construct.ts
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/cdk/test/test.construct.ts
@@ -280,7 +280,7 @@ export = {
     test.deepEqual(con.node.metadata[0].data, 'value');
     test.deepEqual(con.node.metadata[1].data, 103);
     test.deepEqual(con.node.metadata[2].data, [ 123, 456 ]);
-    test.ok(con.node.metadata[0].trace[0].indexOf('FIND_ME') !== -1, 'First stack line should include this function\s name');
+    test.ok(con.node.metadata[0].trace && con.node.metadata[0].trace[0].indexOf('FIND_ME') !== -1, 'First stack line should include this function\s name');
     test.done();
   },
 
@@ -309,7 +309,7 @@ export = {
     con.node.addWarning('This construct is deprecated, use the other one instead');
     test.deepEqual(con.node.metadata[0].type, cxapi.WARNING_METADATA_KEY);
     test.deepEqual(con.node.metadata[0].data, 'This construct is deprecated, use the other one instead');
-    test.ok(con.node.metadata[0].trace.length > 0);
+    test.ok(con.node.metadata[0].trace && con.node.metadata[0].trace.length > 0);
     test.done();
   },
 
@@ -319,7 +319,7 @@ export = {
     con.node.addError('Stop!');
     test.deepEqual(con.node.metadata[0].type, cxapi.ERROR_METADATA_KEY);
     test.deepEqual(con.node.metadata[0].data, 'Stop!');
-    test.ok(con.node.metadata[0].trace.length > 0);
+    test.ok(con.node.metadata[0].trace && con.node.metadata[0].trace.length > 0);
     test.done();
   },
 
@@ -329,7 +329,7 @@ export = {
     con.node.addInfo('Hey there, how do you do?');
     test.deepEqual(con.node.metadata[0].type, cxapi.INFO_METADATA_KEY);
     test.deepEqual(con.node.metadata[0].data, 'Hey there, how do you do?');
-    test.ok(con.node.metadata[0].trace.length > 0);
+    test.ok(con.node.metadata[0].trace && con.node.metadata[0].trace.length > 0);
     test.done();
   },
 
@@ -462,6 +462,23 @@ export = {
     test.deepEqual(c1.node.findAll(ConstructOrder.PreOrder).map(x => x.node.id), [ '1', '2', '4', '5', '3' ]);
     test.deepEqual(c1.node.findAll(ConstructOrder.PostOrder).map(x => x.node.id), [ '4', '5', '2', '3', '1' ]);
     test.done();
+  },
+
+  'ancestors returns a list of parents up to root'(test: Test) {
+    const { child1, child1_1_1 } = createTree();
+
+    test.deepEqual(child1_1_1.node.ancestors().map(x => x.node.id), [ '', 'Child1', 'Child11', 'Child111' ]);
+    test.deepEqual(child1_1_1.node.ancestors(child1).map(x => x.node.id), [ 'Child11', 'Child111' ]);
+    test.deepEqual(child1_1_1.node.ancestors(child1_1_1), [ ]);
+    test.done();
+  },
+
+  '"root" returns the root construct'(test: Test) {
+    const { child1, child2, child1_1_1, root } = createTree();
+    test.ok(child1.node.root === root);
+    test.ok(child2.node.root === root);
+    test.ok(child1_1_1.node.root === root);
+    test.done();
   }
 };
 
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/cdk/test/test.context.ts b/packages/@aws-cdk/cdk/test/test.context.ts
index 20ccfd16a6ea5..d701a725153f1 100644
--- a/packages/@aws-cdk/cdk/test/test.context.ts
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/cdk/test/test.context.ts
@@ -1,7 +1,6 @@
 import cxapi = require('@aws-cdk/cx-api');
 import { Test } from 'nodeunit';
-import { App, AvailabilityZoneProvider, Construct, ContextProvider,
-  MetadataEntry, SSMParameterProvider, Stack } from '../lib';
+import { App, AvailabilityZoneProvider, Construct, ContextProvider, SSMParameterProvider, Stack } from '../lib';
 
 export = {
   'AvailabilityZoneProvider returns a list with dummy values if the context is not available'(test: Test) {
@@ -101,10 +100,11 @@ export = {
     test.deepEqual(new AvailabilityZoneProvider(stack).availabilityZones, [ 'dummy1a', 'dummy1b', 'dummy1c' ]);
     test.deepEqual(new SSMParameterProvider(child, {parameterName: 'foo'}).parameterValue(), 'dummy');
 
-    const output = app.synthesizeStack(stack.name);
-
-    const azError: MetadataEntry | undefined = output.metadata['/test-stack'].find(x => x.type === cxapi.ERROR_METADATA_KEY);
-    const ssmError: MetadataEntry | undefined = output.metadata['/test-stack/ChildConstruct'].find(x => x.type === cxapi.ERROR_METADATA_KEY);
+    const assembly = app.run();
+    const output = assembly.getStack('test-stack');
+    const metadata = output.metadata;
+    const azError: cxapi.MetadataEntry | undefined = metadata['/test-stack'].find(x => x.type === cxapi.ERROR_METADATA_KEY);
+    const ssmError: cxapi.MetadataEntry | undefined = metadata['/test-stack/ChildConstruct'].find(x => x.type === cxapi.ERROR_METADATA_KEY);
 
     test.ok(azError && (azError.data as string).includes('Cannot determine scope for context provider availability-zones'));
     test.ok(ssmError && (ssmError.data as string).includes('Cannot determine scope for context provider ssm'));
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/cdk/test/test.stack.ts b/packages/@aws-cdk/cdk/test/test.stack.ts
index 6d4bc86fbd5a6..0451745f5c7ba 100644
--- a/packages/@aws-cdk/cdk/test/test.stack.ts
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/cdk/test/test.stack.ts
@@ -439,7 +439,7 @@ export = {
     // THEN
     const session = app.run();
     test.deepEqual(stack.name, 'valid-stack-name');
-    test.ok('valid-stack-name' in (session.manifest.artifacts || {}));
+    test.ok(session.tryGetArtifact('valid-stack-name'));
     test.done();
   },
 
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/cdk/test/test.synthesis.ts b/packages/@aws-cdk/cdk/test/test.synthesis.ts
index c360054a24546..8512a07fd9613 100644
--- a/packages/@aws-cdk/cdk/test/test.synthesis.ts
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/cdk/test/test.synthesis.ts
@@ -1,17 +1,15 @@
 import cxapi = require('@aws-cdk/cx-api');
+import { CloudAssemblyBuilder } from '@aws-cdk/cx-api';
 import fs = require('fs');
 import { Test } from 'nodeunit';
 import os = require('os');
 import path = require('path');
 import cdk = require('../lib');
-import { Construct, FileSystemStore, InMemoryStore, ISynthesisSession, SynthesisSession, Synthesizer } from '../lib';
-
-const storeTestMatrix: any = {};
+import { Construct, Synthesizer } from '../lib';
 
 function createModernApp() {
   return new cdk.App({
     context: {
-      [cxapi.DISABLE_LEGACY_MANIFEST_CONTEXT]: 'true',
       [cxapi.DISABLE_VERSION_REPORTING]: 'true', // for test reproducibility
     }
   });
@@ -27,8 +25,8 @@ export = {
 
     // THEN
     test.same(app.run(), session); // same session if we run() again
-    test.deepEqual(session.store.list(), [ 'manifest.json' ]);
-    test.deepEqual(session.store.readJson('manifest.json').artifacts, {});
+    test.deepEqual(list(session.directory), [ 'manifest.json' ]);
+    test.deepEqual(readJson(session.directory, 'manifest.json').artifacts, {});
     test.done();
   },
 
@@ -41,7 +39,7 @@ export = {
     const session = app.run();
 
     // THEN
-    test.deepEqual(session.store.list(), [
+    test.deepEqual(list(session.directory), [
       'manifest.json',
       'one-stack.template.json'
     ]);
@@ -54,13 +52,13 @@ export = {
     const stack = new cdk.Stack(app, 'one-stack');
 
     class MyConstruct extends cdk.Construct implements cdk.ISynthesizable {
-      public synthesize(s: cdk.ISynthesisSession) {
-        s.store.writeJson('foo.json', { bar: 123 });
+      public synthesize(s: cxapi.CloudAssemblyBuilder) {
+        writeJson(s.outdir, 'foo.json', { bar: 123 });
         s.addArtifact('my-random-construct', {
           type: cxapi.ArtifactType.AwsCloudFormationStack,
           environment: 'aws://12345/bar',
           properties: {
-            templateFile: 'file://boom'
+            templateFile: 'foo.json'
           }
         });
       }
@@ -72,19 +70,19 @@ export = {
     const session = app.run();
 
     // THEN
-    test.deepEqual(session.store.list(), [
+    test.deepEqual(list(session.directory), [
       'foo.json',
       'manifest.json',
       'one-stack.template.json'
     ]);
-    test.deepEqual(session.store.readJson('foo.json'), { bar: 123 });
+    test.deepEqual(readJson(session.directory, 'foo.json'), { bar: 123 });
     test.deepEqual(session.manifest, {
-      version: '0.19.0',
+      version: '0.33.0',
       artifacts: {
         'my-random-construct': {
           type: 'aws:cloudformation:stack',
           environment: 'aws://12345/bar',
-          properties: { templateFile: 'file://boom' }
+          properties: { templateFile: 'foo.json' }
         },
         'one-stack': {
           type: 'aws:cloudformation:stack',
@@ -96,37 +94,6 @@ export = {
     test.done();
   },
 
-  'backwards compatibility: cdk.out contains all synthesized stacks'(test: Test) {
-    // GIVEN
-    const app = new cdk.App();
-    const stack1 = new cdk.Stack(app, 'stack1');
-    new cdk.CfnResource(stack1, 'Resource1', { type: 'AWS::CDK::Resource' });
-    new cdk.CfnResource(stack1, 'Resource2', { type: 'AWS::CDK::Resource' });
-    const stack2 = new cdk.Stack(app, 'stack2');
-    new cdk.CfnResource(stack2, 'ResourceA', { type: 'AWS::CDK::Resource' });
-
-    // WHEN
-    const session = app.run();
-    const legacy: cxapi.SynthesizeResponse = session.store.readJson(cxapi.OUTFILE_NAME);
-
-    // THEN
-    const t1 = legacy.stacks.find(s => s.name === 'stack1')!.template;
-    const t2 = legacy.stacks.find(s => s.name === 'stack2')!.template;
-
-    test.deepEqual(t1, {
-      Resources: {
-        Resource1: { Type: 'AWS::CDK::Resource' },
-        Resource2: { Type: 'AWS::CDK::Resource' }
-      }
-    });
-    test.deepEqual(t2, {
-      Resources: {
-        ResourceA: { Type: 'AWS::CDK::Resource' }
-      }
-    });
-    test.done();
-  },
-
   'it should be possible to synthesize without an app'(test: Test) {
     const calls = new Array<string>();
 
@@ -144,184 +111,29 @@ export = {
         calls.push('prepare');
       }
 
-      protected synthesize(session: ISynthesisSession) {
+      protected synthesize(session: CloudAssemblyBuilder) {
         calls.push('synthesize');
 
         session.addArtifact('art', {
-          type: cxapi.ArtifactType.AwsEcrDockerImage,
+          type: cxapi.ArtifactType.AwsCloudFormationStack,
+          properties: { templateFile: 'hey.json' },
           environment: 'aws://unknown-account/us-east-1'
         });
 
-        session.store.writeJson('hey.json', { hello: 123 });
+        writeJson(session.outdir, 'hey.json', { hello: 123 });
       }
     }
 
     const root = new SynthesizeMe();
 
     const synth = new Synthesizer();
-    const result = synth.synthesize(root);
+    const assembly = synth.synthesize(root, { outdir: fs.mkdtempSync(path.join(os.tmpdir(), 'outdir')) });
 
     test.deepEqual(calls, [ 'prepare', 'validate', 'synthesize' ]);
-    test.deepEqual(result.store.readJson('hey.json'), { hello: 123 });
-    test.deepEqual(result.manifest.artifacts!.art, {
-      type: 'aws:ecr:image',
-      environment: 'aws://unknown-account/us-east-1'
-    });
-    test.done();
-  },
-
-  'store': storeTestMatrix
-};
-
-//
-// all these tests will be executed for each type of store
-//
-const storeTests = {
-  'writeFile()/readFile()'(test: Test, store: cdk.ISessionStore) {
-    // WHEN
-    store.writeFile('bla.txt', 'hello');
-    store.writeFile('hey.txt', '1234');
-
-    // THEN
-    test.deepEqual(store.readFile('bla.txt').toString(), 'hello');
-    test.deepEqual(store.readFile('hey.txt').toString(), '1234');
-    test.throws(() => store.writeFile('bla.txt', 'override is forbidden'));
-
-    // WHEN
-    store.lock();
-
-    // THEN
-    test.throws(() => store.writeFile('another.txt', 'locked!'));
-    test.done();
-  },
-
-  'exists() for files'(test: Test, store: cdk.ISessionStore) {
-    // WHEN
-    store.writeFile('A.txt', 'aaa');
-
-    // THEN
-    test.ok(store.exists('A.txt'));
-    test.ok(!store.exists('B.txt'));
-    test.done();
-  },
-
-  'mkdir'(test: Test, store: cdk.ISessionStore) {
-    // WHEN
-    const dir1 = store.mkdir('dir1');
-    const dir2 = store.mkdir('dir2');
-
-    // THEN
-    test.ok(fs.statSync(dir1).isDirectory());
-    test.ok(fs.statSync(dir2).isDirectory());
-    test.throws(() => store.mkdir('dir1'));
-
-    // WHEN
-    store.lock();
-    test.throws(() => store.mkdir('dir3'));
-    test.done();
-  },
-
-  'list'(test: Test, store: cdk.ISessionStore) {
-    // WHEN
-    store.mkdir('dir1');
-    store.writeFile('file1.txt', 'boom1');
-
-    // THEN
-    test.deepEqual(store.list(), ['dir1', 'file1.txt']);
-    test.done();
-  },
-
-  'SynthesisSession'(test: Test, store: cdk.ISessionStore) {
-    // GIVEN
-    const session = new SynthesisSession({ store });
-    const templateFile = 'foo.template.json';
-
-    // WHEN
-    session.addArtifact('my-first-artifact', {
-      type: cxapi.ArtifactType.AwsCloudFormationStack,
-      environment: 'aws://1222344/us-east-1',
-      dependencies: ['a', 'b'],
-      metadata: {
-        foo: { bar: 123 }
-      },
-      properties: {
-        templateFile,
-        parameters: {
-          prop1: '1234',
-          prop2: '555'
-        }
-      },
-      missing: {
-        foo: {
-          provider: 'context-provider',
-          props: {
-            a: 'A',
-            b: 2
-          }
-        }
-      }
-    });
-
-    session.addArtifact('minimal-artifact', {
-      type: cxapi.ArtifactType.AwsCloudFormationStack,
-      environment: 'aws://111/helo-world',
-      properties: {
-        templateFile
-      }
-    });
-
-    session.store.writeJson(templateFile, {
-      Resources: {
-        MyTopic: {
-          Type: 'AWS::S3::Topic'
-        }
-      }
-    });
-
-    session.close();
-
-    const manifest = session.store.readJson(cxapi.MANIFEST_FILE);
-
-    // THEN
-    delete manifest.runtime; // deterministic tests
-
-    // verify the manifest looks right
-    test.deepEqual(manifest, {
-      version: cxapi.PROTO_RESPONSE_VERSION,
-      artifacts: {
-        'my-first-artifact': {
-          type: 'aws:cloudformation:stack',
-          environment: 'aws://1222344/us-east-1',
-          dependencies: ['a', 'b'],
-          metadata: { foo: { bar: 123 } },
-          properties: {
-            templateFile: 'foo.template.json',
-            parameters: {
-              prop1: '1234',
-              prop2: '555'
-            },
-          },
-          missing: {
-            foo: { provider: 'context-provider', props: { a: 'A', b: 2 } }
-          }
-        },
-        'minimal-artifact': {
-          type: 'aws:cloudformation:stack',
-          environment: 'aws://111/helo-world',
-          properties: { templateFile: 'foo.template.json' }
-        }
-      }
-    });
-
-    // verify we have a template file
-    test.deepEqual(session.store.readJson(templateFile), {
-      Resources: {
-        MyTopic: {
-          Type: 'AWS::S3::Topic'
-        }
-      }
-    });
-
+    const stack = assembly.getStack('art');
+    test.deepEqual(stack.template, { hello: 123 });
+    test.deepEqual(stack.properties, { templateFile: 'hey.json' });
+    test.deepEqual(stack.environment, { region: 'us-east-1', account: 'unknown-account', name: 'aws://unknown-account/us-east-1' });
     test.done();
   },
 
@@ -336,47 +148,22 @@ const storeTests = {
 
     // THEN
     const session = app.run();
-    const props = (session.manifest.artifacts && session.manifest.artifacts['my-stack'].properties) || {};
+    const props = session.getStack('my-stack').properties;
     test.deepEqual(props.parameters, {
       MyParam: 'Foo'
     });
     test.done();
   },
-
-  'addBuildStep can be used to produce build.json'(test: Test) {
-    // GIVEN
-    const app = createModernApp();
-
-    // WHEN
-    class BuildMe extends cdk.Construct implements cdk.ISynthesizable {
-      public synthesize(s: cdk.ISynthesisSession) {
-        s.addBuildStep('step_id', {
-          type: 'build-step-type',
-          parameters: {
-            boom: 123
-          }
-        });
-      }
-    }
-
-    new BuildMe(app, 'hey');
-
-    // THEN
-    const session  = app.run();
-    test.deepEqual(session.store.list(), [ 'build.json', 'manifest.json' ]);
-    test.deepEqual(session.store.readJson('build.json'), {
-      steps: {
-        step_id: { type: 'build-step-type', parameters: { boom: 123 } }
-      }
-    });
-    test.done();
-  }
 };
 
-for (const [name, fn] of Object.entries(storeTests)) {
-  const outdir = fs.mkdtempSync(path.join(os.tmpdir(), 'synthesis-tests'));
-  const fsStore = new FileSystemStore({ outdir });
-  const memoryStore = new InMemoryStore();
-  storeTestMatrix[`FileSystemStore - ${name}`] = (test: Test) => fn(test, fsStore);
-  storeTestMatrix[`InMemoryStore - ${name}`] = (test: Test) => fn(test, memoryStore);
+function list(outdir: string) {
+  return fs.readdirSync(outdir).sort();
 }
+
+function readJson(outdir: string, file: string) {
+  return JSON.parse(fs.readFileSync(path.join(outdir, file), 'utf-8'));
+}
+
+function writeJson(outdir: string, file: string, data: any) {
+  fs.writeFileSync(path.join(outdir, file), JSON.stringify(data, undefined, 2));
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/cdk/test/test.tokens.ts b/packages/@aws-cdk/cdk/test/test.tokens.ts
index 639ef3fa93387..1ea25183712e6 100644
--- a/packages/@aws-cdk/cdk/test/test.tokens.ts
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/cdk/test/test.tokens.ts
@@ -481,6 +481,48 @@ export = {
       test.done();
     },
   },
+
+  'stack trace is captured at token creation'(test: Test) {
+    function fn1() {
+      function fn2() {
+        class ExposeTrace extends Token {
+          public get creationTrace() {
+            return this.trace;
+          }
+        }
+
+        return new ExposeTrace(() => 'hello');
+      }
+
+      return fn2();
+    }
+
+    const token = fn1();
+    test.ok(token.creationTrace.find(x => x.includes('fn1')));
+    test.ok(token.creationTrace.find(x => x.includes('fn2')));
+    test.done();
+  },
+
+  'newError returns an error with the creation stack trace'(test: Test) {
+    function fn1() {
+      function fn2() {
+        function fn3() {
+          class ThrowingToken extends Token {
+            public throwError(message: string) {
+              throw this.newError(message);
+            }
+          }
+          return new ThrowingToken('boom');
+        }
+
+        return fn3();
+      }
+      return fn2();
+    }
+    const token = fn1();
+    test.throws(() => token.throwError('message!'), /Token created:/);
+    test.done();
+  }
 };
 
 class Promise2 extends Token {
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/.gitignore b/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/.gitignore
index 7cc4e93cbf77b..aa27a447d1de9 100644
--- a/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/.gitignore
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/.gitignore
@@ -9,4 +9,7 @@ tslint.json
 
 .LAST_BUILD
 .LAST_PACKAGE
-*.snk
\ No newline at end of file
+*.snk
+.nyc_output
+coverage
+.nycrc
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/lib/artifacts.ts b/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/lib/artifacts.ts
deleted file mode 100644
index ce59da7d077db..0000000000000
--- a/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/lib/artifacts.ts
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,23 +0,0 @@
-export const AWS_ENV_REGEX = /aws\:\/\/([0-9]+|unknown-account)\/([a-z\-0-9]+)/;
-
-export enum ArtifactType {
-  AwsCloudFormationStack = 'aws:cloudformation:stack',
-  AwsEcrDockerImage = 'aws:ecr:image',
-  AwsS3Object = 'aws:s3:object'
-}
-
-export interface Artifact {
-  readonly type: ArtifactType;
-  readonly environment: string; // format: aws://account/region
-  readonly metadata?: { [path: string]: any };
-  readonly dependencies?: string[];
-  readonly missing?: { [key: string]: any };
-  readonly properties?: { [name: string]: any };
-  readonly autoDeploy?: boolean;
-}
-
-export function validateArtifact(artifcat: Artifact) {
-  if (!AWS_ENV_REGEX.test(artifcat.environment)) {
-    throw new Error(`Artifact "environment" must conform to ${AWS_ENV_REGEX}: ${artifcat.environment}`);
-  }
-}
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/lib/metadata/assets.ts b/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/lib/assets.ts
similarity index 100%
rename from packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/lib/metadata/assets.ts
rename to packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/lib/assets.ts
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/lib/build.ts b/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/lib/build.ts
deleted file mode 100644
index 4b5ec14188ed5..0000000000000
--- a/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/lib/build.ts
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,16 +0,0 @@
-export interface BuildStep {
-  readonly type: string;
-  readonly depends?: string[];
-  readonly parameters: {
-    [key: string]: any
-  };
-}
-
-export interface BuildManifest {
-  readonly steps: { [id: string]: BuildStep };
-}
-
-export enum BuildStepType {
-  CopyFile = 'copy-file',
-  ZipDirectory = 'zip-directory'
-}
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/lib/cloud-artifact.ts b/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/lib/cloud-artifact.ts
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000..159b00ac161be
--- /dev/null
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/lib/cloud-artifact.ts
@@ -0,0 +1,101 @@
+import { CloudAssembly, MissingContext } from './cloud-assembly';
+import { Environment, EnvironmentUtils } from './environment';
+import { ERROR_METADATA_KEY, INFO_METADATA_KEY, MetadataEntry, SynthesisMessage, SynthesisMessageLevel, WARNING_METADATA_KEY } from './metadata';
+
+export enum ArtifactType {
+  None = 'none',
+  AwsCloudFormationStack = 'aws:cloudformation:stack',
+}
+
+export interface Artifact {
+  readonly type: ArtifactType;
+  readonly environment: string; // format: aws://account/region
+  readonly metadata?: { [path: string]: MetadataEntry[] };
+  readonly dependencies?: string[];
+  readonly missing?: { [key: string]: MissingContext };
+  readonly properties?: { [name: string]: any };
+  readonly autoDeploy?: boolean;
+}
+
+export interface AwsCloudFormationStackProperties {
+  readonly templateFile: string;
+  readonly parameters?: { [id: string]: string };
+}
+
+export class CloudArtifact {
+  public static from(assembly: CloudAssembly, name: string, artifact: Artifact): CloudArtifact {
+    switch (artifact.type) {
+      case ArtifactType.AwsCloudFormationStack:
+        return new CloudFormationStackArtifact(assembly, name, artifact);
+
+      default:
+        throw new Error(`unsupported artifact type: ${artifact.type}`);
+    }
+  }
+
+  public readonly type: ArtifactType;
+  public readonly missing: { [key: string]: MissingContext };
+  public readonly autoDeploy: boolean;
+  public readonly messages: SynthesisMessage[];
+  public readonly environment: Environment;
+  public readonly metadata: { [path: string]: MetadataEntry[] };
+  public readonly dependsIDs: string[];
+  public readonly properties: { [name: string]: any };
+
+  private _deps?: CloudArtifact[]; // cache
+
+  constructor(public readonly assembly: CloudAssembly, public readonly id: string, artifact: Artifact) {
+    this.missing = artifact.missing || { };
+    this.type = artifact.type;
+    this.environment = EnvironmentUtils.parse(artifact.environment);
+    this.autoDeploy = artifact.autoDeploy === undefined ? true : artifact.autoDeploy;
+    this.metadata = artifact.metadata || { };
+    this.messages = this.renderMessages();
+    this.dependsIDs = artifact.dependencies || [];
+    this.properties = artifact.properties || { };
+  }
+
+  public get depends(): CloudArtifact[] {
+    if (this._deps) { return this._deps; }
+
+    this._deps = this.dependsIDs.map(id => {
+      const dep = this.assembly.artifacts.find(a => a.id === id);
+      if (!dep) {
+        throw new Error(`Artifact ${this.id} depends on non-existing artifact ${id}`);
+      }
+      return dep;
+    });
+
+    return this._deps;
+  }
+
+  private renderMessages() {
+    const messages = new Array<SynthesisMessage>();
+
+    for (const [ id, metadata ] of Object.entries(this.metadata)) {
+      for (const entry of metadata) {
+        let level: SynthesisMessageLevel;
+        switch (entry.type) {
+          case WARNING_METADATA_KEY:
+            level = SynthesisMessageLevel.WARNING;
+            break;
+          case ERROR_METADATA_KEY:
+            level = SynthesisMessageLevel.ERROR;
+            break;
+          case INFO_METADATA_KEY:
+            level = SynthesisMessageLevel.INFO;
+            break;
+          default:
+            continue;
+        }
+
+        messages.push({ level, entry, id });
+      }
+    }
+
+    return messages;
+  }
+}
+
+// needs to be defined at the end to avoid a cyclic dependency
+import { CloudFormationStackArtifact } from './cloudformation-artifact';
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/lib/cloud-assembly.ts b/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/lib/cloud-assembly.ts
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000..b985d63790c18
--- /dev/null
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/lib/cloud-assembly.ts
@@ -0,0 +1,204 @@
+import fs = require('fs');
+import os = require('os');
+import path = require('path');
+import { Artifact, CloudArtifact } from './cloud-artifact';
+import { CloudFormationStackArtifact } from './cloudformation-artifact';
+import { topologicalSort } from './toposort';
+import { CLOUD_ASSEMBLY_VERSION, verifyManifestVersion } from './versioning';
+
+export interface AssemblyManifest {
+  /**
+   * Protocol version
+   */
+  readonly version: string;
+
+  /**
+   * The set of artifacts in this assembly.
+   */
+  readonly artifacts?: { [id: string]: Artifact };
+
+  /**
+   * Runtime information.
+   */
+  readonly runtime?: RuntimeInfo;
+}
+
+/**
+ * The name of the root manifest file of the assembly.
+ */
+const MANIFEST_FILE = 'manifest.json';
+
+export class CloudAssembly {
+  public readonly artifacts: CloudArtifact[];
+  public readonly version: string;
+  public readonly missing?: { [key: string]: MissingContext };
+  public readonly runtime: RuntimeInfo;
+  public readonly manifest: AssemblyManifest;
+
+  constructor(public readonly directory: string) {
+    this.manifest = this.readJson(MANIFEST_FILE);
+
+    this.version = this.manifest.version;
+    verifyManifestVersion(this.version);
+
+    this.artifacts = this.renderArtifacts();
+    this.missing = this.renderMissing();
+    this.runtime = this.manifest.runtime || { libraries: { } };
+
+    // force validation of deps by accessing 'depends' on all artifacts
+    this.validateDeps();
+  }
+
+  public tryGetArtifact(id: string): CloudArtifact | undefined {
+    return this.stacks.find(a => a.id === id);
+  }
+
+  public getStack(id: string): CloudFormationStackArtifact {
+    const artifact = this.tryGetArtifact(id);
+    if (!artifact) {
+      throw new Error(`Unable to find artifact with id "${id}"`);
+    }
+
+    if (!(artifact instanceof CloudFormationStackArtifact)) {
+      throw new Error(`Artifact ${id} is not a CloudFormation stack`);
+    }
+
+    return artifact;
+  }
+
+  public readJson(filePath: string) {
+    return JSON.parse(fs.readFileSync(path.join(this.directory, filePath), 'utf-8'));
+  }
+
+  public get stacks(): CloudFormationStackArtifact[] {
+    const result = new Array<CloudFormationStackArtifact>();
+    for (const a of this.artifacts) {
+      if (a instanceof CloudFormationStackArtifact) {
+        result.push(a);
+      }
+    }
+    return result;
+  }
+
+  private validateDeps() {
+    for (const artifact of this.artifacts) {
+      ignore(artifact.depends);
+    }
+  }
+
+  private renderArtifacts() {
+    const result = new Array<CloudArtifact>();
+    for (const [ name, artifact ] of Object.entries(this.manifest.artifacts || { })) {
+      result.push(CloudArtifact.from(this, name, artifact));
+    }
+
+    return topologicalSort(result, x => x.id, x => x.dependsIDs);
+  }
+
+  private renderMissing() {
+    const missing: { [key: string]: MissingContext } = { };
+    for (const artifact of this.artifacts) {
+      for (const [ key, m ] of Object.entries(artifact.missing)) {
+        missing[key] = m;
+      }
+    }
+
+    return Object.keys(missing).length > 0 ? missing : undefined;
+  }
+}
+
+export class CloudAssemblyBuilder {
+  public readonly outdir: string;
+
+  private readonly artifacts: { [id: string]: Artifact } = { };
+
+  constructor(outdir?: string) {
+    this.outdir = outdir || fs.mkdtempSync(path.join(os.tmpdir(), 'cdk.out'));
+
+    // we leverage the fact that outdir is long-lived to avoid staging assets into it
+    // that were already staged (copying can be expensive). this is achieved by the fact
+    // that assets use a source hash as their name. other artifacts, and the manifest,
+    // will overwrite existing files as needed.
+
+    if (fs.existsSync(this.outdir)) {
+      if (!fs.statSync(this.outdir).isDirectory()) {
+        throw new Error(`${this.outdir} must be a directory`);
+      }
+    } else {
+      fs.mkdirSync(this.outdir);
+    }
+  }
+
+  public addArtifact(name: string, artifact: Artifact) {
+    this.artifacts[name] = filterUndefined(artifact);
+  }
+
+  public build(options: BuildOptions = { }): CloudAssembly {
+    const manifest: AssemblyManifest = filterUndefined({
+      version: CLOUD_ASSEMBLY_VERSION,
+      artifacts: this.artifacts,
+      runtime: options.runtimeInfo
+    });
+
+    const manifestFilePath = path.join(this.outdir, MANIFEST_FILE);
+    fs.writeFileSync(manifestFilePath, JSON.stringify(manifest, undefined, 2));
+
+    return new CloudAssembly(this.outdir);
+  }
+}
+
+export interface BuildOptions {
+  /**
+   * Include runtime information (module versions) in manifest.
+   * @default true
+   */
+  readonly runtimeInfo?: RuntimeInfo;
+}
+
+/**
+ * Information about the application's runtime components.
+ */
+export interface RuntimeInfo {
+  /**
+   * The list of libraries loaded in the application, associated with their versions.
+   */
+  readonly libraries: { [name: string]: string };
+}
+
+/**
+ * Represents a missing piece of context.
+ */
+export interface MissingContext {
+  readonly provider: string;
+  readonly props: {
+    account?: string;
+    region?: string;
+    [key: string]: any;
+  };
+}
+
+/**
+ * Returns a copy of `obj` without undefined values in maps or arrays.
+ */
+function filterUndefined(obj: any): any {
+  if (Array.isArray(obj)) {
+    return obj.filter(x => x !== undefined).map(x => filterUndefined(x));
+  }
+
+  if (typeof(obj) === 'object') {
+    const ret: any = { };
+    for (const [key, value] of Object.entries(obj)) {
+      if (value === undefined) {
+        continue;
+      }
+      ret[key] = filterUndefined(value);
+    }
+    return ret;
+  }
+
+  return obj;
+}
+
+function ignore(_x: any) {
+  return;
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/lib/cloudformation-artifact.ts b/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/lib/cloudformation-artifact.ts
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000..ff113472cbfb1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/lib/cloudformation-artifact.ts
@@ -0,0 +1,55 @@
+import { ASSET_METADATA, AssetMetadataEntry } from './assets';
+import { Artifact, AwsCloudFormationStackProperties, CloudArtifact } from './cloud-artifact';
+import { CloudAssembly } from './cloud-assembly';
+
+export class CloudFormationStackArtifact extends CloudArtifact {
+  public readonly template: any;
+  public readonly originalName: string;
+  public readonly logicalIdToPathMap: { [logicalId: string]: string };
+  public readonly assets: AssetMetadataEntry[];
+
+  public name: string;
+
+  constructor(assembly: CloudAssembly, name: string, artifact: Artifact) {
+    super(assembly, name, artifact);
+
+    if (!artifact.properties || !artifact.properties.templateFile) {
+      throw new Error(`Invalid CloudFormation stack artifact. Missing "templateFile" property in cloud assembly manifest`);
+    }
+
+    const properties = this.properties as AwsCloudFormationStackProperties;
+    this.template = this.assembly.readJson(properties.templateFile);
+    this.originalName = name;
+    this.name = this.originalName;
+    this.logicalIdToPathMap = this.buildLogicalToPathMap();
+    this.assets = this.buildAssets();
+  }
+
+  private buildAssets() {
+    const assets = new Array<AssetMetadataEntry>();
+
+    for (const k of Object.keys(this.metadata)) {
+      for (const entry of this.metadata[k]) {
+        if (entry.type === ASSET_METADATA) {
+          assets.push(entry.data);
+        }
+      }
+    }
+
+    return assets;
+  }
+
+  private buildLogicalToPathMap() {
+    const map: { [id: string]: string } = {};
+    for (const cpath of Object.keys(this.metadata)) {
+      const md = this.metadata[cpath];
+      for (const e of md) {
+        if (e.type === 'aws:cdk:logicalId') {
+          const logical = e.data;
+          map[logical] = cpath;
+        }
+      }
+    }
+    return map;
+  }
+}
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/lib/cxapi.ts b/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/lib/cxapi.ts
index 459e3bee879e1..2a71c151eb0f3 100644
--- a/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/lib/cxapi.ts
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/lib/cxapi.ts
@@ -1,129 +1,9 @@
-/**
- * File with definitions for the interface between the Cloud Executable and the CDK toolkit.
- */
-
-import { Artifact } from './artifacts';
-import { Environment } from './environment';
-
-/**
- * Bump this to the library version if and only if the CX protocol changes.
- *
- * We could also have used 1, 2, 3, ... here to indicate protocol versions, but
- * those then still need to be mapped to software versions to be useful. So we
- * might as well use the software version as protocol version and immediately
- * generate a useful error message from this.
- *
- * Note the following:
- *
- * - The versions are not compared in a semver way, they are used as
- *    opaque ordered tokens.
- * - The version needs to be set to the NEXT releasable version when it's
- *   updated (as the current verison in package.json has already been released!)
- * - The request does not have versioning yet, only the response.
- */
-export const PROTO_RESPONSE_VERSION = '0.19.0';
-
-/**
- * The name of the root manifest file of the assembly.
- */
-export const MANIFEST_FILE = 'manifest.json';
-
-/**
- * The name of the root file with build instructions.
- */
-export const BUILD_FILE = 'build.json';
-
+// output directory into which to emit synthesis outputs. CDK doesn't allow outdir
+// to be specified both through the CDK_OUTDIR environment variable and the through
+// aws:cdk:outdir context.
 export const OUTDIR_ENV = 'CDK_OUTDIR';
 export const CONTEXT_ENV = 'CDK_CONTEXT_JSON';
 
-/**
- * Represents a missing piece of context.
- */
-export interface MissingContext {
-  readonly provider: string;
-  readonly props: {
-    account?: string;
-    region?: string;
-    [key: string]: any;
-  };
-}
-
-export interface AssemblyManifest {
-  /**
-   * Protocol version
-   */
-  readonly version: string;
-
-  /**
-   * The set of artifacts in this assembly.
-   */
-  readonly artifacts?: { [id: string]: Artifact };
-
-  /**
-   * Runtime information.
-   */
-  readonly runtime?: AppRuntime;
-}
-
-/**
- * @deprecated use `AssemblyManifest`
- */
-export interface SynthesizeResponse extends AssemblyManifest {
-  readonly stacks: SynthesizedStack[];
-}
-
-/**
- * A complete synthesized stack
- */
-export interface SynthesizedStack {
-  readonly name: string;
-  readonly environment: Environment;
-  readonly missing?: { [key: string]: MissingContext };
-  readonly metadata: StackMetadata;
-  readonly template: any;
-  readonly autoDeploy?: boolean;
-
-  /**
-   * Other stacks this stack depends on
-   */
-  readonly dependsOn?: string[];
-}
-
-/**
- * An metadata entry in the construct.
- */
-export interface MetadataEntry {
-  /**
-   * The type of the metadata entry.
-   */
-  readonly type: string;
-
-  /**
-   * The data.
-   */
-  readonly data?: any;
-
-  /**
-   * A stack trace for when the entry was created.
-   */
-  readonly trace: string[];
-}
-
-/**
- * Metadata associated with the objects in the stack's Construct tree
- */
-export type StackMetadata = { [path: string]: MetadataEntry[] };
-
-/**
- * Information about the application's runtime components.
- */
-export interface AppRuntime {
-  /**
-   * The list of libraries loaded in the application, associated with their versions.
-   */
-  readonly libraries: { [name: string]: string };
-}
-
 /**
  * Context parameter for the default AWS account to use if a stack's environment is not set.
  */
@@ -134,52 +14,23 @@ export const DEFAULT_ACCOUNT_CONTEXT_KEY = 'aws:cdk:toolkit:default-account';
  */
 export const DEFAULT_REGION_CONTEXT_KEY = 'aws:cdk:toolkit:default-region';
 
-/**
- * Metadata key used to print INFO-level messages by the toolkit when an app is syntheized.
- */
-export const INFO_METADATA_KEY = 'aws:cdk:info';
-
-/**
- * Metadata key used to print WARNING-level messages by the toolkit when an app is syntheized.
- */
-export const WARNING_METADATA_KEY = 'aws:cdk:warning';
-
-/**
- * Metadata key used to print ERROR-level messages by the toolkit when an app is syntheized.
- */
-export const ERROR_METADATA_KEY = 'aws:cdk:error';
-
-/**
- * The key used when CDK path is embedded in **CloudFormation template**
- * metadata.
- */
-export const PATH_METADATA_KEY = 'aws:cdk:path';
-
 /**
  * Enables the embedding of the "aws:cdk:path" in CloudFormation template metadata.
  */
 export const PATH_METADATA_ENABLE_CONTEXT = 'aws:cdk:enable-path-metadata';
 
 /**
- * Disables the emission of `cdk.out`
- */
-export const DISABLE_LEGACY_MANIFEST_CONTEXT = 'aws:cdk:disable-legacy-manifest';
-
-/**
- * The name of the pre 0.25.0 manifest file. Will only be emitted if
- * aws:cdk:disable-legacy-manifest is not defined.
- *
- * @deprecated Use `MANIFEST_FILE`
+ * Disable the collection and reporting of version information.
  */
-export const OUTFILE_NAME = 'cdk.out';
+export const DISABLE_VERSION_REPORTING = 'aws:cdk:disable-version-reporting';
 
 /**
- * Disable the collection and reporting of version information.
+ * If this is set, asset staging is disabled. This means that assets will not be copied to
+ * the output directory and will be referenced with absolute source paths.
  */
-export const DISABLE_VERSION_REPORTING = 'aws:cdk:disable-version-reporting';
+export const DISABLE_ASSET_STAGING_CONTEXT = 'aws:cdk:disable-asset-staging';
 
 /**
- * If this context key is set, the CDK will stage assets under the specified
- * directory. Otherwise, assets will not be staged.
+ * Omits stack traces from construct metadata entries.
  */
-export const ASSET_STAGING_DIR_CONTEXT = 'aws:cdk:asset-staging-dir';
+export const DISABLE_METADATA_STACK_TRACE = 'aws:cdk:disable-stack-trace';
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/lib/environment.ts b/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/lib/environment.ts
index 6dac39a141f27..5a11eaa602653 100644
--- a/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/lib/environment.ts
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/lib/environment.ts
@@ -1,3 +1,8 @@
+/**
+ * Parser for the artifact environment field.
+ */
+const AWS_ENV_REGEX = /aws\:\/\/([0-9]+|unknown-account)\/([a-z\-0-9]+)/;
+
 /**
  * Models an AWS execution environment, for use within the CDK toolkit.
  */
@@ -11,3 +16,25 @@ export interface Environment {
   /** The AWS region name where this environment deploys into */
   readonly region: string;
 }
+
+export class EnvironmentUtils {
+  public static parse(environment: string): Environment {
+    const env = AWS_ENV_REGEX.exec(environment);
+    if (!env) {
+      throw new Error(
+        `Unable to parse environment specification "${environment}". ` +
+        `Expected format: aws://acount/region`);
+    }
+
+    const [ , account, region ] = env;
+    if (!account || !region) {
+      throw new Error(`Invalid environment specification: ${environment}`);
+    }
+
+    return { account, region, name: environment };
+  }
+
+  public static format(account: string, region: string): string {
+    return `aws://${account}/${region}`;
+  }
+}
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/lib/index.ts b/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/lib/index.ts
index b3ebfaa8cf77a..703044a016f22 100644
--- a/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/lib/index.ts
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/lib/index.ts
@@ -1,9 +1,11 @@
 export * from './cxapi';
-export * from './environment';
 export * from './context/hosted-zone';
 export * from './context/vpc';
 export * from './context/ssm-parameter';
 export * from './context/availability-zones';
-export * from './metadata/assets';
-export * from './artifacts';
-export * from './build';
+export * from './cloud-artifact';
+export * from './cloudformation-artifact';
+export * from './cloud-assembly';
+export * from './assets';
+export * from './environment';
+export * from './metadata';
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/lib/metadata.ts b/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/lib/metadata.ts
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000..25e0f730105a4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/lib/metadata.ts
@@ -0,0 +1,56 @@
+
+/**
+ * Metadata key used to print INFO-level messages by the toolkit when an app is syntheized.
+ */
+export const INFO_METADATA_KEY = 'aws:cdk:info';
+
+/**
+ * Metadata key used to print WARNING-level messages by the toolkit when an app is syntheized.
+ */
+export const WARNING_METADATA_KEY = 'aws:cdk:warning';
+
+/**
+ * Metadata key used to print ERROR-level messages by the toolkit when an app is syntheized.
+ */
+export const ERROR_METADATA_KEY = 'aws:cdk:error';
+
+/**
+ * The key used when CDK path is embedded in **CloudFormation template** metadata (not cdk metadata).
+ */
+export const PATH_METADATA_KEY = 'aws:cdk:path';
+
+export enum SynthesisMessageLevel {
+  INFO = 'info',
+  WARNING = 'warning',
+  ERROR = 'error'
+}
+/**
+ * An metadata entry in the construct.
+ */
+export interface MetadataEntry {
+  /**
+   * The type of the metadata entry.
+   */
+  readonly type: string;
+
+  /**
+   * The data.
+   */
+  readonly data?: any;
+
+  /**
+   * A stack trace for when the entry was created.
+   */
+  readonly trace?: string[];
+}
+
+/**
+ * Metadata associated with the objects in the stack's Construct tree
+ */
+export type StackMetadata = { [path: string]: MetadataEntry[] };
+
+export interface SynthesisMessage {
+  readonly level: SynthesisMessageLevel;
+  readonly id: string;
+  readonly entry: MetadataEntry;
+}
diff --git a/packages/aws-cdk/lib/api/util/toposort.ts b/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/lib/toposort.ts
similarity index 100%
rename from packages/aws-cdk/lib/api/util/toposort.ts
rename to packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/lib/toposort.ts
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/lib/versioning.ts b/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/lib/versioning.ts
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000..c84e83f21c8f0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/lib/versioning.ts
@@ -0,0 +1,46 @@
+import semver = require('semver');
+
+/**
+ * Bump this to the library version if and only if the CX protocol changes.
+ *
+ * We could also have used 1, 2, 3, ... here to indicate protocol versions, but
+ * those then still need to be mapped to software versions to be useful. So we
+ * might as well use the software version as protocol version and immediately
+ * generate a useful error message from this.
+ *
+ * Note the following:
+ *
+ * - The versions are not compared in a semver way, they are used as
+ *    opaque ordered tokens.
+ * - The version needs to be set to the NEXT releasable version when it's
+ *   updated (as the current verison in package.json has already been released!)
+ * - The request does not have versioning yet, only the response.
+ */
+export const CLOUD_ASSEMBLY_VERSION = '0.33.0';
+
+/**
+ * Look at the type of response we get and upgrade it to the latest expected version
+ */
+export function verifyManifestVersion(manifetVersion: string) {
+  const frameworkVersion = parseSemver(manifetVersion);
+  const toolkitVersion = parseSemver(CLOUD_ASSEMBLY_VERSION);
+
+  // if framework > cli, we require a newer cli version
+  if (semver.gt(frameworkVersion, toolkitVersion)) {
+    throw new Error(`CLI >= ${frameworkVersion} is required to interact with this app`);
+  }
+
+  // if framework < cli, we require a newer framework version
+  if (semver.lt(frameworkVersion, toolkitVersion)) {
+    throw new Error(`App used framework v${frameworkVersion} but it must be >= v${CLOUD_ASSEMBLY_VERSION} in order to interact with this CLI`);
+  }
+}
+
+function parseSemver(version: string) {
+  const ver = semver.coerce(version);
+  if (!ver) {
+    throw new Error(`Could not parse "${version}" as semver`);
+  }
+
+  return ver;
+}
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/package-lock.json b/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/package-lock.json
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000..07a807238d5a5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/package-lock.json
@@ -0,0 +1,5035 @@
+{
+	"name": "@aws-cdk/cx-api",
+	"version": "0.32.0",
+	"lockfileVersion": 1,
+	"requires": true,
+	"dependencies": {
+		"@babel/code-frame": {
+			"version": "7.0.0",
+			"resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@babel/code-frame/-/code-frame-7.0.0.tgz",
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+			"dev": true,
+			"requires": {
+				"@babel/highlight": "^7.0.0"
+			}
+		},
+		"@babel/core": {
+			"version": "7.4.5",
+			"resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@babel/core/-/core-7.4.5.tgz",
+			"integrity": "sha512-OvjIh6aqXtlsA8ujtGKfC7LYWksYSX8yQcM8Ay3LuvVeQ63lcOKgoZWVqcpFwkd29aYU9rVx7jxhfhiEDV9MZA==",
+			"dev": true,
+			"requires": {
+				"@babel/code-frame": "^7.0.0",
+				"@babel/generator": "^7.4.4",
+				"@babel/helpers": "^7.4.4",
+				"@babel/parser": "^7.4.5",
+				"@babel/template": "^7.4.4",
+				"@babel/traverse": "^7.4.5",
+				"@babel/types": "^7.4.4",
+				"convert-source-map": "^1.1.0",
+				"debug": "^4.1.0",
+				"json5": "^2.1.0",
+				"lodash": "^4.17.11",
+				"resolve": "^1.3.2",
+				"semver": "^5.4.1",
+				"source-map": "^0.5.0"
+			},
+			"dependencies": {
+				"debug": {
+					"version": "4.1.1",
+					"resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/debug/-/debug-4.1.1.tgz",
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+					"dev": true,
+					"requires": {
+						"ms": "^2.1.1"
+					}
+				},
+				"ms": {
+					"version": "2.1.1",
+					"resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/ms/-/ms-2.1.1.tgz",
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+					"dev": true
+				},
+				"semver": {
+					"version": "5.7.0",
+					"resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/semver/-/semver-5.7.0.tgz",
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+					"dev": true
+				},
+				"source-map": {
+					"version": "0.5.7",
+					"resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/source-map/-/source-map-0.5.7.tgz",
+					"integrity": "sha1-igOdLRAh0i0eoUyA2OpGi6LvP8w=",
+					"dev": true
+				}
+			}
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+		"@babel/generator": {
+			"version": "7.4.4",
+			"resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@babel/generator/-/generator-7.4.4.tgz",
+			"integrity": "sha512-53UOLK6TVNqKxf7RUh8NE851EHRxOOeVXKbK2bivdb+iziMyk03Sr4eaE9OELCbyZAAafAKPDwF2TPUES5QbxQ==",
+			"dev": true,
+			"requires": {
+				"@babel/types": "^7.4.4",
+				"jsesc": "^2.5.1",
+				"lodash": "^4.17.11",
+				"source-map": "^0.5.0",
+				"trim-right": "^1.0.1"
+			},
+			"dependencies": {
+				"source-map": {
+					"version": "0.5.7",
+					"resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/source-map/-/source-map-0.5.7.tgz",
+					"integrity": "sha1-igOdLRAh0i0eoUyA2OpGi6LvP8w=",
+					"dev": true
+				}
+			}
+		},
+		"@babel/helper-function-name": {
+			"version": "7.1.0",
+			"resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@babel/helper-function-name/-/helper-function-name-7.1.0.tgz",
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+			"dev": true,
+			"requires": {
+				"@babel/helper-get-function-arity": "^7.0.0",
+				"@babel/template": "^7.1.0",
+				"@babel/types": "^7.0.0"
+			}
+		},
+		"@babel/helper-get-function-arity": {
+			"version": "7.0.0",
+			"resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@babel/helper-get-function-arity/-/helper-get-function-arity-7.0.0.tgz",
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+			"dev": true,
+			"requires": {
+				"@babel/types": "^7.0.0"
+			}
+		},
+		"@babel/helper-plugin-utils": {
+			"version": "7.0.0",
+			"resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@babel/helper-plugin-utils/-/helper-plugin-utils-7.0.0.tgz",
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+			"dev": true
+		},
+		"@babel/helper-split-export-declaration": {
+			"version": "7.4.4",
+			"resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@babel/helper-split-export-declaration/-/helper-split-export-declaration-7.4.4.tgz",
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+			"dev": true,
+			"requires": {
+				"@babel/types": "^7.4.4"
+			}
+		},
+		"@babel/helpers": {
+			"version": "7.4.4",
+			"resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@babel/helpers/-/helpers-7.4.4.tgz",
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+			"dev": true,
+			"requires": {
+				"@babel/template": "^7.4.4",
+				"@babel/traverse": "^7.4.4",
+				"@babel/types": "^7.4.4"
+			}
+		},
+		"@babel/highlight": {
+			"version": "7.0.0",
+			"resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@babel/highlight/-/highlight-7.0.0.tgz",
+			"integrity": "sha512-UFMC4ZeFC48Tpvj7C8UgLvtkaUuovQX+5xNWrsIoMG8o2z+XFKjKaN9iVmS84dPwVN00W4wPmqvYoZF3EGAsfw==",
+			"dev": true,
+			"requires": {
+				"chalk": "^2.0.0",
+				"esutils": "^2.0.2",
+				"js-tokens": "^4.0.0"
+			}
+		},
+		"@babel/parser": {
+			"version": "7.4.5",
+			"resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@babel/parser/-/parser-7.4.5.tgz",
+			"integrity": "sha512-9mUqkL1FF5T7f0WDFfAoDdiMVPWsdD1gZYzSnaXsxUCUqzuch/8of9G3VUSNiZmMBoRxT3neyVsqeiL/ZPcjew==",
+			"dev": true
+		},
+		"@babel/plugin-syntax-object-rest-spread": {
+			"version": "7.2.0",
+			"resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@babel/plugin-syntax-object-rest-spread/-/plugin-syntax-object-rest-spread-7.2.0.tgz",
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+			"dev": true,
+			"requires": {
+				"@babel/helper-plugin-utils": "^7.0.0"
+			}
+		},
+		"@babel/template": {
+			"version": "7.4.4",
+			"resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@babel/template/-/template-7.4.4.tgz",
+			"integrity": "sha512-CiGzLN9KgAvgZsnivND7rkA+AeJ9JB0ciPOD4U59GKbQP2iQl+olF1l76kJOupqidozfZ32ghwBEJDhnk9MEcw==",
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+			"requires": {
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+				"@babel/parser": "^7.4.4",
+				"@babel/types": "^7.4.4"
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+			"version": "7.4.5",
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+			"integrity": "sha512-Vc+qjynwkjRmIFGxy0KYoPj4FdVDxLej89kMHFsWScq999uX+pwcX4v9mWRjW0KcAYTPAuVQl2LKP1wEVLsp+A==",
+			"dev": true,
+			"requires": {
+				"@babel/code-frame": "^7.0.0",
+				"@babel/generator": "^7.4.4",
+				"@babel/helper-function-name": "^7.1.0",
+				"@babel/helper-split-export-declaration": "^7.4.4",
+				"@babel/parser": "^7.4.5",
+				"@babel/types": "^7.4.4",
+				"debug": "^4.1.0",
+				"globals": "^11.1.0",
+				"lodash": "^4.17.11"
+			},
+			"dependencies": {
+				"debug": {
+					"version": "4.1.1",
+					"resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/debug/-/debug-4.1.1.tgz",
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+					"requires": {
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+					}
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+					"dev": true
+				}
+			}
+		},
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+			"version": "7.4.4",
+			"resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@babel/types/-/types-7.4.4.tgz",
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+			"requires": {
+				"esutils": "^2.0.2",
+				"lodash": "^4.17.11",
+				"to-fast-properties": "^2.0.0"
+			}
+		},
+		"@cnakazawa/watch": {
+			"version": "1.0.3",
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+			"requires": {
+				"exec-sh": "^0.3.2",
+				"minimist": "^1.2.0"
+			}
+		},
+		"@jest/console": {
+			"version": "24.7.1",
+			"resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@jest/console/-/console-24.7.1.tgz",
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+			"dev": true,
+			"requires": {
+				"@jest/source-map": "^24.3.0",
+				"chalk": "^2.0.1",
+				"slash": "^2.0.0"
+			}
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+		"@jest/core": {
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+			"resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@jest/core/-/core-24.8.0.tgz",
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+			"dev": true,
+			"requires": {
+				"@jest/console": "^24.7.1",
+				"@jest/reporters": "^24.8.0",
+				"@jest/test-result": "^24.8.0",
+				"@jest/transform": "^24.8.0",
+				"@jest/types": "^24.8.0",
+				"ansi-escapes": "^3.0.0",
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+}
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/package.json b/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/package.json
index 6a7a4f442718c..a3ed181c6fecc 100644
--- a/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/package.json
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/package.json
@@ -42,10 +42,27 @@
     "url": "https://aws.amazon.com",
     "organization": true
   },
+  "dependencies": {
+    "semver": "^6.0.0"
+  },
+  "jest": {
+    "moduleFileExtensions": [
+      "js"
+    ],
+    "coverageThreshold": {
+      "global": {
+        "branches": 80,
+        "statements": 80
+      }
+    }
+  },
   "license": "Apache-2.0",
   "devDependencies": {
     "cdk-build-tools": "^0.32.0",
-    "pkglint": "^0.32.0"
+    "@types/jest": "^24.0.11",
+    "@types/semver": "^6.0.0",
+    "pkglint": "^0.32.0",
+    "jest": "^24.7.1"
   },
   "repository": {
     "url": "https://github.com/awslabs/aws-cdk.git",
@@ -57,6 +74,9 @@
     "cdk"
   ],
   "homepage": "https://github.com/awslabs/aws-cdk",
+  "bundledDependencies": [
+    "semver"
+  ],
   "engines": {
     "node": ">= 8.10.0"
   }
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/test/__snapshots__/cloud-assembly.test.js.snap b/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/test/__snapshots__/cloud-assembly.test.js.snap
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000..8bf4506feca6e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/test/__snapshots__/cloud-assembly.test.js.snap
@@ -0,0 +1,61 @@
+// Jest Snapshot v1, https://goo.gl/fbAQLP
+
+exports[`assembly with missing context 1`] = `
+Object {
+  "missing:context:key": Object {
+    "foo": 123,
+  },
+  "missing:context:key2": Object {
+    "foo": 6688,
+  },
+}
+`;
+
+exports[`assets 1`] = `
+Array [
+  Object {
+    "id": "logical-id-of-the-asset",
+    "packaging": "zip",
+    "path": "asset-dir",
+    "sourceHash": "xoxoxox",
+  },
+  Object {
+    "id": "logical-id-of-the-asset-x1234",
+    "packaging": "docker",
+    "path": "docker-asset",
+    "sourceHash": "docker-asset-source",
+  },
+]
+`;
+
+exports[`messages 1`] = `
+Array [
+  Object {
+    "entry": Object {
+      "data": "boom",
+      "trace": "bam",
+      "type": "aws:cdk:warning",
+    },
+    "id": "foo",
+    "level": "warning",
+  },
+  Object {
+    "entry": Object {
+      "data": "error!!",
+      "trace": "bam!Error",
+      "type": "aws:cdk:error",
+    },
+    "id": "foo",
+    "level": "error",
+  },
+  Object {
+    "entry": Object {
+      "data": "info?",
+      "trace": "bam!Error",
+      "type": "aws:cdk:info",
+    },
+    "id": "bar",
+    "level": "info",
+  },
+]
+`;
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/test/cloud-assembly-builder.test.ts b/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/test/cloud-assembly-builder.test.ts
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000..90d67873cd137
--- /dev/null
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/test/cloud-assembly-builder.test.ts
@@ -0,0 +1,100 @@
+import fs = require('fs');
+import os = require('os');
+import path = require('path');
+import { ArtifactType, CloudAssemblyBuilder } from '../lib';
+import { CLOUD_ASSEMBLY_VERSION } from '../lib/versioning';
+
+test('cloud assembly builder', () => {
+  // GIVEN
+  const outdir = fs.mkdtempSync(path.join(os.tmpdir(), 'cloud-assembly-builder-tests'));
+  const session = new CloudAssemblyBuilder(outdir);
+  const templateFile = 'foo.template.json';
+
+  // WHEN
+  session.addArtifact('my-first-artifact', {
+    type: ArtifactType.AwsCloudFormationStack,
+    environment: 'aws://1222344/us-east-1',
+    dependencies: ['minimal-artifact'],
+    metadata: {
+      foo: [ { data: 123, type: 'foo', trace: [] } ]
+    },
+    properties: {
+      templateFile,
+      parameters: {
+        prop1: '1234',
+        prop2: '555'
+      }
+    },
+    missing: {
+      foo: {
+        provider: 'context-provider',
+        props: {
+          a: 'A',
+          b: 2
+        }
+      }
+    }
+  });
+
+  session.addArtifact('minimal-artifact', {
+    type: ArtifactType.AwsCloudFormationStack,
+    environment: 'aws://111/helo-world',
+    properties: {
+      templateFile
+    }
+  });
+
+  fs.writeFileSync(path.join(session.outdir, templateFile), JSON.stringify({
+    Resources: {
+      MyTopic: {
+        Type: 'AWS::S3::Topic'
+      }
+    }
+  }));
+
+  const assembly = session.build();
+
+  const manifest = assembly.manifest;
+
+  // THEN
+  // verify the manifest looks right
+  expect(manifest).toStrictEqual({
+    version: CLOUD_ASSEMBLY_VERSION,
+    artifacts: {
+      'my-first-artifact': {
+        type: 'aws:cloudformation:stack',
+        environment: 'aws://1222344/us-east-1',
+        dependencies: ['minimal-artifact'],
+        metadata: { foo: [ { data: 123, type: 'foo', trace: [] } ] },
+        properties: {
+          templateFile: 'foo.template.json',
+          parameters: {
+            prop1: '1234',
+            prop2: '555'
+          },
+        },
+        missing: {
+          foo: { provider: 'context-provider', props: { a: 'A', b: 2 } }
+        }
+      },
+      'minimal-artifact': {
+        type: 'aws:cloudformation:stack',
+        environment: 'aws://111/helo-world',
+        properties: { templateFile: 'foo.template.json' }
+      }
+    }
+  });
+
+  // verify we have a template file
+  expect(assembly.getStack('minimal-artifact').template).toStrictEqual({
+    Resources: {
+      MyTopic: {
+        Type: 'AWS::S3::Topic'
+      }
+    }
+  });
+});
+
+test('outdir must be a directory', () => {
+  expect(() => new CloudAssemblyBuilder(__filename)).toThrow('must be a directory');
+});
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/test/cloud-assembly.test.ts b/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/test/cloud-assembly.test.ts
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000..671abaf29aa8a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/test/cloud-assembly.test.ts
@@ -0,0 +1,100 @@
+import path = require('path');
+import { CloudAssembly } from '../lib';
+import { CLOUD_ASSEMBLY_VERSION, verifyManifestVersion } from '../lib/versioning';
+
+const FIXTURES = path.join(__dirname, 'fixtures');
+
+test('empty assembly', () => {
+  const assembly = new CloudAssembly(path.join(FIXTURES, 'empty'));
+  expect(assembly.artifacts).toEqual([]);
+  expect(assembly.missing).toBeUndefined();
+  expect(assembly.runtime).toEqual({ libraries: { } });
+  expect(assembly.stacks).toEqual([]);
+  expect(assembly.version).toEqual(CLOUD_ASSEMBLY_VERSION);
+});
+
+test('assembly a single cloudformation stack', () => {
+  const assembly = new CloudAssembly(path.join(FIXTURES, 'single-stack'));
+  expect(assembly.artifacts).toHaveLength(1);
+  expect(assembly.stacks).toHaveLength(1);
+  expect(assembly.missing).toBeUndefined();
+  expect(assembly.runtime).toEqual({ libraries: { } });
+  expect(assembly.version).toEqual(CLOUD_ASSEMBLY_VERSION);
+  expect(assembly.artifacts[0]).toEqual(assembly.stacks[0]);
+
+  const stack = assembly.stacks[0];
+  expect(stack.assets).toHaveLength(0);
+  expect(stack.autoDeploy).toBeTruthy();
+  expect(stack.depends).toEqual([]);
+  expect(stack.environment).toEqual({ account: '37736633', region: 'us-region-1', name: 'aws://37736633/us-region-1' });
+  expect(stack.template).toEqual({ Resources: { MyBucket: { Type: "AWS::S3::Bucket" } } });
+  expect(stack.messages).toEqual([]);
+  expect(stack.metadata).toEqual({});
+  expect(stack.missing).toEqual({});
+  expect(stack.originalName).toEqual('MyStackName');
+  expect(stack.name).toEqual('MyStackName');
+  expect(stack.logicalIdToPathMap).toEqual({});
+});
+
+test('assembly with missing context', () => {
+  const assembly = new CloudAssembly(path.join(FIXTURES, 'missing-context'));
+  expect(assembly.missing).toMatchSnapshot();
+});
+
+test('assembly with multiple stacks', () => {
+  const assembly = new CloudAssembly(path.join(FIXTURES, 'multiple-stacks'));
+  expect(assembly.stacks).toHaveLength(2);
+  expect(assembly.artifacts).toHaveLength(2);
+});
+
+test('fails for invalid artifact type', () => {
+  expect(() => new CloudAssembly(path.join(FIXTURES, 'invalid-artifact-type')))
+    .toThrow('unsupported artifact type: who:am:i');
+});
+
+test('fails for invalid environment format', () => {
+  expect(() => new CloudAssembly(path.join(FIXTURES, 'invalid-env-format')))
+    .toThrow('Unable to parse environment specification');
+});
+
+test('fails if stack artifact does not have properties', () => {
+  expect(() => new CloudAssembly(path.join(FIXTURES, 'stack-without-params')))
+    .toThrow('Invalid CloudFormation stack artifact. Missing \"templateFile\" property in cloud assembly manifest');
+});
+
+test('messages', () => {
+  const assembly = new CloudAssembly(path.join(FIXTURES, 'messages'));
+  expect(assembly.stacks[0].messages).toMatchSnapshot();
+});
+
+test('assets', () => {
+  const assembly = new CloudAssembly(path.join(FIXTURES, 'assets'));
+  expect(assembly.stacks[0].assets).toMatchSnapshot();
+});
+
+test('logical id to path map', () => {
+  const assembly = new CloudAssembly(path.join(FIXTURES, 'logical-id-map'));
+  expect(assembly.stacks[0].logicalIdToPathMap).toEqual({ logicalIdOfFooBar: '/foo/bar' });
+});
+
+test('dependencies', () => {
+  const assembly = new CloudAssembly(path.join(FIXTURES, 'depends'));
+  expect(assembly.stacks).toHaveLength(4);
+
+  // expect stacks to be listed in topological order
+  expect(assembly.stacks.map(s => s.name)).toEqual([ 'StackA', 'StackD', 'StackC', 'StackB' ]);
+  expect(assembly.stacks[0].depends).toEqual([]);
+  expect(assembly.stacks[1].depends).toEqual([]);
+  expect(assembly.stacks[2].depends.map(x => x.id)).toEqual([ 'StackD' ]);
+  expect(assembly.stacks[3].depends.map(x => x.id)).toEqual([ 'StackC', 'StackD' ]);
+});
+
+test('fails for invalid dependencies', () => {
+  expect(() => new CloudAssembly(path.join(FIXTURES, 'invalid-depends'))).toThrow('Artifact StackC depends on non-existing artifact StackX');
+});
+
+test('verifyManifestVersion', () => {
+  verifyManifestVersion('0.33.0');
+  expect(() => verifyManifestVersion('0.31.0')).toThrow('App used framework v0.31.0 but it must be >= v0.33.0 in order to interact with this CLI');
+  expect(() => verifyManifestVersion('0.34.0')).toThrow('CLI >= 0.34.0 is required to interact with this app');
+});
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/test/fixtures/assets/asset-dir/foo.txt b/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/test/fixtures/assets/asset-dir/foo.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000..5783cb7e31483
--- /dev/null
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/test/fixtures/assets/asset-dir/foo.txt
@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+hello, assets!
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/test/fixtures/assets/docker-asset/Dockerfile b/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/test/fixtures/assets/docker-asset/Dockerfile
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000..ceaf18ac05257
--- /dev/null
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/test/fixtures/assets/docker-asset/Dockerfile
@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+FROM ubuntu
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/test/fixtures/assets/manifest.json b/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/test/fixtures/assets/manifest.json
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000..93c9745639042
--- /dev/null
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/test/fixtures/assets/manifest.json
@@ -0,0 +1,36 @@
+{
+  "version": "0.33.0",
+  "artifacts": {
+    "MyStackName": {
+      "type": "aws:cloudformation:stack",
+      "environment": "aws://37736633/us-region-1",
+      "properties": {
+        "templateFile": "template.json"
+      },
+      "metadata": {
+        "foo": [
+          {
+            "type": "aws:cdk:asset",
+            "data": {
+              "packaging": "zip",
+              "id": "logical-id-of-the-asset",
+              "sourceHash": "xoxoxox",
+              "path": "asset-dir"
+            },
+            "trace": "bam"
+          },
+          {
+            "type": "aws:cdk:asset",
+            "data": {
+              "packaging": "docker",
+              "id": "logical-id-of-the-asset-x1234",
+              "sourceHash": "docker-asset-source",
+              "path": "docker-asset"
+            },
+            "trace": "bam:ssss"
+          }
+        ]
+      }
+    }
+  }
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/test/fixtures/assets/template.json b/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/test/fixtures/assets/template.json
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000..284fd64cffc21
--- /dev/null
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/test/fixtures/assets/template.json
@@ -0,0 +1,7 @@
+{
+  "Resources": {
+    "MyBucket": {
+      "Type": "AWS::S3::Bucket"
+    }
+  }
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/test/fixtures/depends/manifest.json b/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/test/fixtures/depends/manifest.json
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000..f0a43dc6cf926
--- /dev/null
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/test/fixtures/depends/manifest.json
@@ -0,0 +1,35 @@
+{
+  "version": "0.33.0",
+  "artifacts": {
+    "StackA": {
+      "type": "aws:cloudformation:stack",
+      "environment": "aws://37736633/us-region-1",
+      "properties": {
+        "templateFile": "template.json"
+      }
+    },
+    "StackB": {
+      "type": "aws:cloudformation:stack",
+      "environment": "aws://1111/us-region-1",
+      "properties": {
+        "templateFile": "template.json"
+      },
+      "dependencies": [ "StackC", "StackD" ]
+    },
+    "StackC": {
+      "type": "aws:cloudformation:stack",
+      "environment": "aws://1111/us-region-1",
+      "properties": {
+        "templateFile": "template.json"
+      },
+      "dependencies": [ "StackD" ]
+    },
+    "StackD": {
+      "type": "aws:cloudformation:stack",
+      "environment": "aws://1111/us-region-1",
+      "properties": {
+        "templateFile": "template.json"
+      }
+    }
+  }
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/test/fixtures/depends/template.json b/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/test/fixtures/depends/template.json
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000..284fd64cffc21
--- /dev/null
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/test/fixtures/depends/template.json
@@ -0,0 +1,7 @@
+{
+  "Resources": {
+    "MyBucket": {
+      "Type": "AWS::S3::Bucket"
+    }
+  }
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/test/fixtures/empty/manifest.json b/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/test/fixtures/empty/manifest.json
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000..1a1c7486458ef
--- /dev/null
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/test/fixtures/empty/manifest.json
@@ -0,0 +1,3 @@
+{
+  "version": "0.33.0"
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/test/fixtures/invalid-artifact-type/manifest.json b/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/test/fixtures/invalid-artifact-type/manifest.json
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000..f3e4eff9bcfb8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/test/fixtures/invalid-artifact-type/manifest.json
@@ -0,0 +1,9 @@
+{
+  "version": "0.33.0",
+  "artifacts": {
+    "MyArt": {
+      "type": "who:am:i",
+      "environment": "aws://37736633/us-region-1"
+    }
+  }
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/test/fixtures/invalid-depends/manifest.json b/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/test/fixtures/invalid-depends/manifest.json
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000..27f637ba0aabe
--- /dev/null
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/test/fixtures/invalid-depends/manifest.json
@@ -0,0 +1,35 @@
+{
+  "version": "0.33.0",
+  "artifacts": {
+    "StackA": {
+      "type": "aws:cloudformation:stack",
+      "environment": "aws://37736633/us-region-1",
+      "properties": {
+        "templateFile": "template.json"
+      }
+    },
+    "StackB": {
+      "type": "aws:cloudformation:stack",
+      "environment": "aws://1111/us-region-1",
+      "properties": {
+        "templateFile": "template.json"
+      },
+      "dependencies": [ "StackC", "StackD" ]
+    },
+    "StackC": {
+      "type": "aws:cloudformation:stack",
+      "environment": "aws://1111/us-region-1",
+      "properties": {
+        "templateFile": "template.json"
+      },
+      "dependencies": [ "StackX" ]
+    },
+    "StackD": {
+      "type": "aws:cloudformation:stack",
+      "environment": "aws://1111/us-region-1",
+      "properties": {
+        "templateFile": "template.json"
+      }
+    }
+  }
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/test/fixtures/invalid-depends/template.json b/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/test/fixtures/invalid-depends/template.json
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000..284fd64cffc21
--- /dev/null
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/test/fixtures/invalid-depends/template.json
@@ -0,0 +1,7 @@
+{
+  "Resources": {
+    "MyBucket": {
+      "Type": "AWS::S3::Bucket"
+    }
+  }
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/test/fixtures/invalid-env-format/manifest.json b/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/test/fixtures/invalid-env-format/manifest.json
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000..4533438b41f14
--- /dev/null
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/test/fixtures/invalid-env-format/manifest.json
@@ -0,0 +1,12 @@
+{
+  "version": "0.33.0",
+  "artifacts": {
+    "MyStackName": {
+      "type": "aws:cloudformation:stack",
+      "environment": "awsx://37736633/us-region-1",
+      "properties": {
+        "templateFile": "template.json"
+      }
+    }
+  }
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/test/fixtures/logical-id-map/manifest.json b/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/test/fixtures/logical-id-map/manifest.json
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000..e77bd29eda177
--- /dev/null
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/test/fixtures/logical-id-map/manifest.json
@@ -0,0 +1,21 @@
+{
+  "version": "0.33.0",
+  "artifacts": {
+    "MyStackName": {
+      "type": "aws:cloudformation:stack",
+      "environment": "aws://37736633/us-region-1",
+      "properties": {
+        "templateFile": "template.json"
+      },
+      "metadata": {
+        "/foo/bar": [
+          {
+            "type": "aws:cdk:logicalId",
+            "data": "logicalIdOfFooBar",
+            "trace": "bam"
+          }
+        ]
+      }
+    }
+  }
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/test/fixtures/logical-id-map/template.json b/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/test/fixtures/logical-id-map/template.json
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000..284fd64cffc21
--- /dev/null
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/test/fixtures/logical-id-map/template.json
@@ -0,0 +1,7 @@
+{
+  "Resources": {
+    "MyBucket": {
+      "Type": "AWS::S3::Bucket"
+    }
+  }
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/test/fixtures/messages/manifest.json b/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/test/fixtures/messages/manifest.json
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000..aedd6d1b48bf4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/test/fixtures/messages/manifest.json
@@ -0,0 +1,22 @@
+{
+  "version": "0.33.0",
+  "artifacts": {
+    "MyStackName": {
+      "type": "aws:cloudformation:stack",
+      "environment": "aws://37736633/us-region-1",
+      "properties": {
+        "templateFile": "template.json"
+      },
+      "metadata": {
+        "foo": [
+          { "type": "aws:cdk:warning", "data": "boom", "trace": "bam" },
+          { "type": "aws:cdk:error", "data": "error!!", "trace": "bam!Error" }
+        ],
+        "bar": [
+          { "type": "aws:cdk:info", "data": "info?", "trace": "bam!Error" },
+          { "type": "aws:foo", "data": "info?", "trace": "bam!Error" }
+        ]
+      }
+    }
+  }
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/test/fixtures/messages/template.json b/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/test/fixtures/messages/template.json
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000..284fd64cffc21
--- /dev/null
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/test/fixtures/messages/template.json
@@ -0,0 +1,7 @@
+{
+  "Resources": {
+    "MyBucket": {
+      "Type": "AWS::S3::Bucket"
+    }
+  }
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/test/fixtures/missing-context/manifest.json b/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/test/fixtures/missing-context/manifest.json
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000..4a5185aad4056
--- /dev/null
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/test/fixtures/missing-context/manifest.json
@@ -0,0 +1,26 @@
+{
+  "version": "0.33.0",
+  "artifacts": {
+    "MyStackName": {
+      "type": "aws:cloudformation:stack",
+      "environment": "aws://37736633/us-region-1",
+      "missing": {
+        "missing:context:key": { "foo": 123 }
+      },
+      "properties": {
+        "templateFile": "template.json"
+      }
+    },
+    "MyStackName1234": {
+      "type": "aws:cloudformation:stack",
+      "environment": "aws://37736633/us-region-1",
+      "missing": {
+        "missing:context:key2": { "foo": 6688 }
+      },
+      "properties": {
+        "templateFile": "template.json"
+      }
+    }
+
+  }
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/test/fixtures/missing-context/template.json b/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/test/fixtures/missing-context/template.json
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000..284fd64cffc21
--- /dev/null
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/test/fixtures/missing-context/template.json
@@ -0,0 +1,7 @@
+{
+  "Resources": {
+    "MyBucket": {
+      "Type": "AWS::S3::Bucket"
+    }
+  }
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/test/fixtures/multiple-stacks/manifest.json b/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/test/fixtures/multiple-stacks/manifest.json
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000..62458941a6728
--- /dev/null
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/test/fixtures/multiple-stacks/manifest.json
@@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
+{
+  "version": "0.33.0",
+  "artifacts": {
+    "MyStackName": {
+      "type": "aws:cloudformation:stack",
+      "environment": "aws://37736633/us-region-1",
+      "properties": {
+        "templateFile": "template.json"
+      }
+    },
+    "MyStackName1234": {
+      "type": "aws:cloudformation:stack",
+      "environment": "aws://1111/us-region-1",
+      "properties": {
+        "templateFile": "template.2.json"
+      }
+    }
+  }
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/test/fixtures/multiple-stacks/template.2.json b/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/test/fixtures/multiple-stacks/template.2.json
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000..284fd64cffc21
--- /dev/null
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/test/fixtures/multiple-stacks/template.2.json
@@ -0,0 +1,7 @@
+{
+  "Resources": {
+    "MyBucket": {
+      "Type": "AWS::S3::Bucket"
+    }
+  }
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/test/fixtures/multiple-stacks/template.json b/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/test/fixtures/multiple-stacks/template.json
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000..284fd64cffc21
--- /dev/null
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/test/fixtures/multiple-stacks/template.json
@@ -0,0 +1,7 @@
+{
+  "Resources": {
+    "MyBucket": {
+      "Type": "AWS::S3::Bucket"
+    }
+  }
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/test/fixtures/single-stack/manifest.json b/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/test/fixtures/single-stack/manifest.json
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000..09d0cae2be4e1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/test/fixtures/single-stack/manifest.json
@@ -0,0 +1,12 @@
+{
+  "version": "0.33.0",
+  "artifacts": {
+    "MyStackName": {
+      "type": "aws:cloudformation:stack",
+      "environment": "aws://37736633/us-region-1",
+      "properties": {
+        "templateFile": "template.json"
+      }
+    }
+  }
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/test/fixtures/single-stack/template.json b/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/test/fixtures/single-stack/template.json
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000..284fd64cffc21
--- /dev/null
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/test/fixtures/single-stack/template.json
@@ -0,0 +1,7 @@
+{
+  "Resources": {
+    "MyBucket": {
+      "Type": "AWS::S3::Bucket"
+    }
+  }
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/test/fixtures/stack-without-params/manifest.json b/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/test/fixtures/stack-without-params/manifest.json
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000..fd4bbfc3da8fb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/packages/@aws-cdk/cx-api/test/fixtures/stack-without-params/manifest.json
@@ -0,0 +1,9 @@
+{
+  "version": "0.33.0",
+  "artifacts": {
+    "MyStackName": {
+      "type": "aws:cloudformation:stack",
+      "environment": "aws://37736633/us-region-1"
+    }
+  }
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/packages/aws-cdk/bin/cdk.ts b/packages/aws-cdk/bin/cdk.ts
index 6d2b623e9bbf6..514ed9476de3f 100644
--- a/packages/aws-cdk/bin/cdk.ts
+++ b/packages/aws-cdk/bin/cdk.ts
@@ -2,20 +2,17 @@
 import 'source-map-support/register';
 
 import colors = require('colors/safe');
-import fs = require('fs-extra');
 import yargs = require('yargs');
 
 import { bootstrapEnvironment, destroyStack, SDK } from '../lib';
 import { environmentsFromDescriptors, globEnvironmentsFromStacks } from '../lib/api/cxapp/environments';
 import { execProgram } from '../lib/api/cxapp/exec';
-import { AppStacks, ExtendedStackSelection, listStackNames } from '../lib/api/cxapp/stacks';
+import { AppStacks, ExtendedStackSelection } from '../lib/api/cxapp/stacks';
 import { CloudFormationDeploymentTarget, DEFAULT_TOOLKIT_STACK_NAME } from '../lib/api/deployment-target';
-import { leftPad } from '../lib/api/util/string-manipulation';
 import { CdkToolkit } from '../lib/cdk-toolkit';
 import { RequireApproval } from '../lib/diff';
 import { availableInitLanguages, cliInit, printAvailableTemplates } from '../lib/init';
-import { interactive } from '../lib/interactive';
-import { data, debug, error, highlight, print, setVerbose, success } from '../lib/logging';
+import { data, debug, error, print, setVerbose, success } from '../lib/logging';
 import { PluginHost } from '../lib/plugin';
 import { parseRenames } from '../lib/renames';
 import { serializeStructure } from '../lib/serialize';
@@ -31,7 +28,7 @@ async function parseCommandLineArguments() {
   return yargs
     .env('CDK')
     .usage('Usage: cdk -a <cdk-app> COMMAND')
-    .option('app', { type: 'string', alias: 'a', desc: 'REQUIRED: Command-line for executing your CDK app (e.g. "node bin/my-app.js")', requiresArg: true })
+    .option('app', { type: 'string', alias: 'a', desc: 'REQUIRED: command-line for executing your app or a cloud assembly directory (e.g. "node bin/my-app.js")', requiresArg: true })
     .option('context', { type: 'array', alias: 'c', desc: 'Add contextual string parameter (KEY=VALUE)', nargs: 1, requiresArg: true })
     .option('plugin', { type: 'array', alias: 'p', desc: 'Name or path of a node package that extend the CDK features. Can be specified multiple times', nargs: 1 })
     .option('rename', { type: 'string', desc: 'Rename stack name if different from the one defined in the cloud executable ([ORIGINAL:]RENAMED)', requiresArg: true })
@@ -48,14 +45,12 @@ async function parseCommandLineArguments() {
     .option('asset-metadata', { type: 'boolean', desc: 'Include "aws:asset:*" CloudFormation metadata for resources that user assets (enabled by default)', default: true })
     .option('role-arn', { type: 'string', alias: 'r', desc: 'ARN of Role to use when invoking CloudFormation', default: undefined, requiresArg: true })
     .option('toolkit-stack-name', { type: 'string', desc: 'The name of the CDK toolkit stack', requiresArg: true })
-    .option('staging', { type: 'string', desc: 'directory name for staging assets (use --no-asset-staging to disable)', default: '.cdk.staging' })
+    .option('staging', { type: 'boolean', desc: 'copy assets to the output directory (use --no-staging to disable)', default: true })
+    .option('output', { type: 'string', alias: 'o', desc: 'emits the synthesized cloud assembly into a directory (default: cdk.out)', requiresArg: true })
     .command([ 'list', 'ls' ], 'Lists all stacks in the app', yargs => yargs
       .option('long', { type: 'boolean', default: false, alias: 'l', desc: 'display environment information for each stack' }))
     .command([ 'synthesize [STACKS..]', 'synth [STACKS..]' ], 'Synthesizes and prints the CloudFormation template for this stack', yargs => yargs
-      .option('exclusively', { type: 'boolean', alias: 'e', desc: 'only deploy requested stacks, don\'t include dependencies' })
-      .option('interactive', { type: 'boolean', alias: 'i', desc: 'interactively watch and show template updates' })
-      .option('output', { type: 'string', alias: 'o', desc: 'write CloudFormation template for requested stacks to the given directory', requiresArg: true })
-      .option('numbered', { type: 'boolean', alias: 'n', desc: 'prefix filenames with numbers to indicate deployment ordering' }))
+      .option('exclusively', { type: 'boolean', alias: 'e', desc: 'only deploy requested stacks, don\'t include dependencies' }))
     .command('bootstrap [ENVIRONMENTS..]', 'Deploys the CDK toolkit stack into an AWS environment', yargs => yargs
       .option('toolkit-bucket-name', { type: 'string', alias: 'b', desc: 'The name of the CDK toolkit bucket', default: undefined }))
     .command('deploy [STACKS..]', 'Deploys the stack(s) named STACKS into your AWS account', yargs => yargs
@@ -211,7 +206,7 @@ async function initCommandLine() {
 
       case 'synthesize':
       case 'synth':
-        return await cliSynthesize(args.STACKS, args.exclusively, args.interactive, args.output, args.json, args.numbered);
+        return await cliSynthesize(args.STACKS, args.exclusively);
 
       case 'metadata':
         return await cliMetadata(await findStack(args.STACK));
@@ -279,21 +274,15 @@ async function initCommandLine() {
    * should be supplied, where the templates will be written.
    */
   async function cliSynthesize(stackNames: string[],
-                               exclusively: boolean,
-                               doInteractive: boolean,
-                               outputDir: string|undefined,
-                               json: boolean,
-                               numbered: boolean): Promise<any> {
+                               exclusively: boolean): Promise<any> {
     // Only autoselect dependencies if it doesn't interfere with user request or output options
-    const autoSelectDependencies = !exclusively && outputDir !== undefined;
+    const autoSelectDependencies = !exclusively;
 
     const stacks = await appStacks.selectStacks(stackNames, autoSelectDependencies ? ExtendedStackSelection.Upstream : ExtendedStackSelection.None);
 
-    if (doInteractive) {
-      if (stacks.length !== 1) {
-        throw new Error(`When using interactive synthesis, must select exactly one stack. Got: ${listStackNames(stacks)}`);
-      }
-      return await interactive(stacks[0], argv.verbose, (stack) => appStacks.synthesizeStack(stack));
+    // if we have a single stack, print it to STDOUT
+    if (stacks.length === 1) {
+      return stacks[0].template;
     }
 
     // This is a slight hack; in integ mode we allow multiple stacks to be synthesized to stdout sequentially.
@@ -304,33 +293,11 @@ async function initCommandLine() {
     // the stack names), it's not exposed as a CLI flag. Instead, it's hidden
     // behind an environment variable.
     const isIntegMode = process.env.CDK_INTEG_MODE === '1';
-
-    if (stacks.length > 1 && outputDir == null && !isIntegMode) {
-      // tslint:disable-next-line:max-line-length
-      throw new Error(`Multiple stacks selected (${listStackNames(stacks)}), but output is directed to stdout. Either select one stack, or use --output to send templates to a directory.`);
-    }
-
-    if (outputDir == null) {
-      // What we return here will be printed in 'main'
-      if (stacks.length > 1) {
-        // Only possible in integ mode
-        return stacks.map(s => s.template);
-      }
-      return stacks[0].template;
-    }
-
-    fs.mkdirpSync(outputDir);
-
-    let i = 0;
-    for (const stack of stacks) {
-      const prefix = numbered ? leftPad(`${i}`, 3, '0') + '.' : '';
-      const fileName = `${outputDir}/${prefix}${stack.name}.template.${json ? 'json' : 'yaml'}`;
-      highlight(fileName);
-      await fs.writeFile(fileName, toJsonOrYaml(stack.template));
-      i++;
+    if (isIntegMode) {
+      return stacks.map(s => s.template);
     }
 
-    return undefined; // Nothing to print
+    return appStacks.assembly!.directory;
   }
 
   async function cliList(options: { long?: boolean } = { }) {
diff --git a/packages/aws-cdk/lib/api/bootstrap-environment.ts b/packages/aws-cdk/lib/api/bootstrap-environment.ts
index d2c751b36b6dc..8c9baeb090c8b 100644
--- a/packages/aws-cdk/lib/api/bootstrap-environment.ts
+++ b/packages/aws-cdk/lib/api/bootstrap-environment.ts
@@ -1,4 +1,7 @@
-import { Environment, SynthesizedStack } from '@aws-cdk/cx-api';
+import cxapi = require('@aws-cdk/cx-api');
+import fs = require('fs-extra');
+import os = require('os');
+import path = require('path');
 import { deployStack, DeployStackResult } from './deploy-stack';
 import { SDK } from './util/sdk';
 
@@ -7,36 +10,46 @@ import { SDK } from './util/sdk';
 export const BUCKET_NAME_OUTPUT = 'BucketName';
 export const BUCKET_DOMAIN_NAME_OUTPUT = 'BucketDomainName';
 
-export async function bootstrapEnvironment(environment: Environment, aws: SDK, toolkitStackName: string, roleArn: string | undefined, toolkitBucketName: string | undefined): Promise<DeployStackResult> {
-  const synthesizedStack: SynthesizedStack = {
-    environment,
-    metadata: {},
-    template: {
-      Description: "The CDK Toolkit Stack. It was created by `cdk bootstrap` and manages resources necessary for managing your Cloud Applications with AWS CDK.",
-      Resources: {
-        StagingBucket: {
-          Type: "AWS::S3::Bucket",
-          Properties: {
-            AccessControl: "Private",
-            BucketEncryption: { ServerSideEncryptionConfiguration: [{ ServerSideEncryptionByDefault: { SSEAlgorithm: "aws:kms" } }] }
-          }
-        }
-      },
-      Outputs: {
-        [BUCKET_NAME_OUTPUT]: {
-          Description: "The name of the S3 bucket owned by the CDK toolkit stack",
-          Value: { Ref: "StagingBucket" }
-        },
-        [BUCKET_DOMAIN_NAME_OUTPUT]: {
-          Description: "The domain name of the S3 bucket owned by the CDK toolkit stack",
-          Value: { "Fn::GetAtt": ["StagingBucket", "DomainName"] }
+export async function bootstrapEnvironment(environment: cxapi.Environment, aws: SDK, toolkitStackName: string, roleArn: string | undefined, toolkitBucketName: string | undefined): Promise<DeployStackResult> {
+
+  const template = {
+    Description: "The CDK Toolkit Stack. It was created by `cdk bootstrap` and manages resources necessary for managing your Cloud Applications with AWS CDK.",
+    Resources: {
+      StagingBucket: {
+        Type: "AWS::S3::Bucket",
+        Properties: {
+          BucketName: toolkitBucketName,
+          AccessControl: "Private",
+          BucketEncryption: { ServerSideEncryptionConfiguration: [{ ServerSideEncryptionByDefault: { SSEAlgorithm: "aws:kms" } }] }
         }
       }
     },
-    name: toolkitStackName,
+    Outputs: {
+      [BUCKET_NAME_OUTPUT]: {
+        Description: "The name of the S3 bucket owned by the CDK toolkit stack",
+        Value: { Ref: "StagingBucket" }
+      },
+      [BUCKET_DOMAIN_NAME_OUTPUT]: {
+        Description: "The domain name of the S3 bucket owned by the CDK toolkit stack",
+        Value: { "Fn::GetAtt": ["StagingBucket", "DomainName"] }
+      }
+    }
   };
-  if (toolkitBucketName) {
-    synthesizedStack.template.Resources.StagingBucket.Properties.BucketName = toolkitBucketName;
-  }
-  return await deployStack({ stack: synthesizedStack, sdk: aws, roleArn });
+
+  const outdir = await fs.mkdtemp(path.join(os.tmpdir(), 'cdk-bootstrap'));
+  const builder = new cxapi.CloudAssemblyBuilder(outdir);
+  const templateFile = `${toolkitStackName}.template.json`;
+
+  await fs.writeJson(path.join(builder.outdir, templateFile), template, { spaces: 2 });
+
+  builder.addArtifact(toolkitStackName, {
+    type: cxapi.ArtifactType.AwsCloudFormationStack,
+    environment: cxapi.EnvironmentUtils.format(environment.account, environment.region),
+    properties: {
+      templateFile
+    },
+  });
+
+  const assembly = builder.build();
+  return await deployStack({ stack: assembly.getStack(toolkitStackName), sdk: aws, roleArn });
 }
diff --git a/packages/aws-cdk/lib/api/cxapp/exec.ts b/packages/aws-cdk/lib/api/cxapp/exec.ts
index 72d1412c367c6..642bf11c7fcf0 100644
--- a/packages/aws-cdk/lib/api/cxapp/exec.ts
+++ b/packages/aws-cdk/lib/api/cxapp/exec.ts
@@ -1,15 +1,13 @@
 import cxapi = require('@aws-cdk/cx-api');
 import childProcess = require('child_process');
 import fs = require('fs-extra');
-import os = require('os');
 import path = require('path');
-import semver = require('semver');
 import { debug } from '../../logging';
 import { Configuration, PROJECT_CONFIG, USER_DEFAULTS } from '../../settings';
 import { SDK } from '../util/sdk';
 
 /** Invokes the cloud executable and returns JSON output */
-export async function execProgram(aws: SDK, config: Configuration): Promise<cxapi.SynthesizeResponse> {
+export async function execProgram(aws: SDK, config: Configuration): Promise<cxapi.CloudAssembly> {
   const env: { [key: string]: string } = { };
 
   const context = config.context.all;
@@ -42,11 +40,15 @@ export async function execProgram(aws: SDK, config: Configuration): Promise<cxap
     context[cxapi.DISABLE_VERSION_REPORTING] = true;
   }
 
-  const stagingDir = config.settings.get(['staging']);
-  context[cxapi.ASSET_STAGING_DIR_CONTEXT] = stagingDir;
+  let stagingEnabled = config.settings.get(['staging']);
+  if (stagingEnabled === undefined) {
+    stagingEnabled = true;
+  }
+  if (!stagingEnabled) {
+    context[cxapi.DISABLE_ASSET_STAGING_CONTEXT] = true;
+  }
 
   debug('context:', context);
-
   env[cxapi.CONTEXT_ENV] = JSON.stringify(context);
 
   const app = config.settings.get(['app']);
@@ -54,26 +56,26 @@ export async function execProgram(aws: SDK, config: Configuration): Promise<cxap
     throw new Error(`--app is required either in command-line, in ${PROJECT_CONFIG} or in ${USER_DEFAULTS}`);
   }
 
+  // by pass "synth" if app points to a cloud assembly
+  if (await fs.pathExists(app) && (await fs.stat(app)).isDirectory()) {
+    debug('--app points to a cloud assembly, so we by pass synth');
+    return new cxapi.CloudAssembly(app);
+  }
+
   const commandLine = await guessExecutable(appToArray(app));
 
-  const outdir = await fs.mkdtemp(path.join(os.tmpdir(), 'cdk'));
+  const outdir = config.settings.get([ 'output' ]);
+  if (!outdir) {
+    throw new Error('unexpected: --output is required');
+  }
+  await fs.mkdirp(outdir);
+
   debug('outdir:', outdir);
   env[cxapi.OUTDIR_ENV] = outdir;
 
-  try {
-    const outfile = await exec();
-    debug('outfile:', outfile);
-    if (!(await fs.pathExists(outfile))) {
-      throw new Error(`Unable to find output file ${outfile}; are you calling app.run()?`);
-    }
+  await exec();
 
-    const response = await fs.readJson(outfile);
-    debug(response);
-    return versionCheckResponse(response);
-  } finally {
-    debug('Removing outdir', outdir);
-    await fs.remove(outdir);
-  }
+  return new cxapi.CloudAssembly(outdir);
 
   async function exec() {
     return new Promise<string>((ok, fail) => {
@@ -101,7 +103,7 @@ export async function execProgram(aws: SDK, config: Configuration): Promise<cxap
 
       proc.on('exit', code => {
         if (code === 0) {
-          return ok(path.join(outdir, cxapi.OUTFILE_NAME));
+          return ok();
         } else {
           return fail(new Error(`Subprocess exited with error ${code}`));
         }
@@ -110,37 +112,6 @@ export async function execProgram(aws: SDK, config: Configuration): Promise<cxap
   }
 }
 
-/**
- * Look at the type of response we get and upgrade it to the latest expected version
- */
-function versionCheckResponse(response: cxapi.SynthesizeResponse): cxapi.SynthesizeResponse {
-  if (!response.version) {
-    // tslint:disable-next-line:max-line-length
-    throw new Error(`CDK Framework >= ${cxapi.PROTO_RESPONSE_VERSION} is required in order to interact with this version of the Toolkit.`);
-  }
-
-  const frameworkVersion = semver.coerce(response.version);
-  const toolkitVersion = semver.coerce(cxapi.PROTO_RESPONSE_VERSION);
-
-  // Should not happen, but I don't trust this library 100% either, so let's check for it to be safe
-  if (!frameworkVersion || !toolkitVersion) { throw new Error('SemVer library could not parse versions'); }
-
-  if (semver.gt(frameworkVersion, toolkitVersion)) {
-    throw new Error(`CDK Toolkit >= ${response.version} is required in order to interact with this program.`);
-  }
-
-  if (semver.lt(frameworkVersion, toolkitVersion)) {
-    // Toolkit protocol is newer than the framework version, and we KNOW the
-    // version. This is a scenario in which we could potentially do some
-    // upgrading of the response in the future.
-    //
-    // For now though, we simply reject old responses.
-    throw new Error(`CDK Framework >= ${cxapi.PROTO_RESPONSE_VERSION} is required in order to interact with this version of the Toolkit.`);
-  }
-
-  return response;
-}
-
 /**
  * If we don't have region/account defined in context, we fall back to the default SDK behavior
  * where region is retreived from ~/.aws/config and account is based on default credentials provider
diff --git a/packages/aws-cdk/lib/api/cxapp/stacks.ts b/packages/aws-cdk/lib/api/cxapp/stacks.ts
index 7d913155e2a70..5117240eff68e 100644
--- a/packages/aws-cdk/lib/api/cxapp/stacks.ts
+++ b/packages/aws-cdk/lib/api/cxapp/stacks.ts
@@ -6,11 +6,12 @@ import contextproviders = require('../../context-providers');
 import { debug, error, print, warning } from '../../logging';
 import { Renames } from '../../renames';
 import { Configuration } from '../../settings';
-import cdkUtil = require('../../util');
 import { SDK } from '../util/sdk';
-import { topologicalSort } from '../util/toposort';
 
-type Synthesizer = (aws: SDK, config: Configuration) => Promise<cxapi.SynthesizeResponse>;
+/**
+ * @returns output directory
+ */
+type Synthesizer = (aws: SDK, config: Configuration) => Promise<cxapi.CloudAssembly>;
 
 export interface AppStacksProps {
   /**
@@ -65,7 +66,8 @@ export class AppStacks {
    * Since app execution basically always synthesizes all the stacks,
    * we can invoke it once and cache the response for subsequent calls.
    */
-  private cachedResponse?: cxapi.SynthesizeResponse;
+  public assembly?: cxapi.CloudAssembly;
+
   private readonly renames: Renames;
 
   constructor(private readonly props: AppStacksProps) {
@@ -78,28 +80,29 @@ export class AppStacks {
    * It's an error if there are no stacks to select, or if one of the requested parameters
    * refers to a nonexistant stack.
    */
-  public async selectStacks(selectors: string[], extendedSelection: ExtendedStackSelection): Promise<SelectedStack[]> {
+  public async selectStacks(selectors: string[], extendedSelection: ExtendedStackSelection): Promise<cxapi.CloudFormationStackArtifact[]> {
     selectors = selectors.filter(s => s != null); // filter null/undefined
 
-    const stacks: cxapi.SynthesizedStack[] = await this.listStacks();
+    const stacks = await this.listStacks();
     if (stacks.length === 0) {
       throw new Error('This app contains no stacks');
     }
 
     if (selectors.length === 0) {
       // remove non-auto deployed Stacks
-      const autoDeployedStacks = stacks.filter(s => s.autoDeploy !== false);
+      const autoDeployedStacks = stacks.filter(s => s.autoDeploy);
       debug('Stack name not specified, so defaulting to all available stacks: ' + listStackNames(autoDeployedStacks));
-      return this.applyRenames(autoDeployedStacks);
+      this.applyRenames(autoDeployedStacks);
+      return autoDeployedStacks;
     }
 
-    const allStacks = new Map<string, cxapi.SynthesizedStack>();
+    const allStacks = new Map<string, cxapi.CloudFormationStackArtifact>();
     for (const stack of stacks) {
       allStacks.set(stack.name, stack);
     }
 
     // For every selector argument, pick stacks from the list.
-    const selectedStacks = new Map<string, cxapi.SynthesizedStack>();
+    const selectedStacks = new Map<string, cxapi.CloudFormationStackArtifact>();
     for (const pattern of selectors) {
       let found = false;
 
@@ -129,7 +132,9 @@ export class AppStacks {
 
     // Only check selected stacks for errors
     this.processMessages(selectedList);
-    return this.applyRenames(selectedList);
+    this.applyRenames(selectedList);
+
+    return selectedList;
   }
 
   /**
@@ -142,42 +147,43 @@ export class AppStacks {
    *
    * Renames are *NOT* applied in list mode.
    */
-  public async listStacks(): Promise<cxapi.SynthesizedStack[]> {
+  public async listStacks(): Promise<cxapi.CloudFormationStackArtifact[]> {
     const response = await this.synthesizeStacks();
-    return topologicalSort(response.stacks, s => s.name, s => s.dependsOn || []);
+    return response.stacks;
   }
 
   /**
    * Synthesize a single stack
    */
-  public async synthesizeStack(stackName: string): Promise<SelectedStack> {
+  public async synthesizeStack(stackName: string): Promise<cxapi.CloudFormationStackArtifact> {
     const resp = await this.synthesizeStacks();
     const stack = resp.stacks.find(s => s.name === stackName);
     if (!stack) {
       throw new Error(`Stack ${stackName} not found`);
     }
-    return this.applyRenames([stack])[0];
+    this.applyRenames([stack]);
+
+    return stack;
   }
 
   /**
    * Synthesize a set of stacks
    */
-  public async synthesizeStacks(): Promise<cxapi.SynthesizeResponse> {
-    if (this.cachedResponse) {
-      return this.cachedResponse;
+  public async synthesizeStacks(): Promise<cxapi.CloudAssembly> {
+    if (this.assembly) {
+      return this.assembly;
     }
 
     const trackVersions: boolean = this.props.configuration.settings.get(['versionReporting']);
 
     // We may need to run the cloud executable multiple times in order to satisfy all missing context
     while (true) {
-      const response: cxapi.SynthesizeResponse = await this.props.synthesizer(this.props.aws, this.props.configuration);
-      const allMissing = cdkUtil.deepMerge(...response.stacks.map(s => s.missing));
+      const assembly = await this.props.synthesizer(this.props.aws, this.props.configuration);
 
-      if (!cdkUtil.isEmpty(allMissing)) {
+      if (assembly.missing) {
         debug(`Some context information is missing. Fetching...`);
 
-        await contextproviders.provideContextValues(allMissing, this.props.configuration.context, this.props.aws);
+        await contextproviders.provideContextValues(assembly.missing, this.props.configuration.context, this.props.aws);
 
         // Cache the new context to disk
         await this.props.configuration.saveContext();
@@ -185,9 +191,9 @@ export class AppStacks {
         continue;
       }
 
-      if (trackVersions && response.runtime) {
-        const modules = formatModules(response.runtime);
-        for (const stack of response.stacks) {
+      if (trackVersions && assembly.runtime) {
+        const modules = formatModules(assembly.runtime);
+        for (const stack of assembly.stacks) {
           if (!stack.template.Resources) {
             stack.template.Resources = {};
           }
@@ -209,10 +215,10 @@ export class AppStacks {
       }
 
       // All good, return
-      this.cachedResponse = response;
-      return response;
+      this.assembly = assembly;
+      return assembly;
 
-      function formatModules(runtime: cxapi.AppRuntime): string {
+      function formatModules(runtime: cxapi.RuntimeInfo): string {
         const modules = new Array<string>();
 
         // inject toolkit version to list of modules
@@ -230,26 +236,24 @@ export class AppStacks {
   /**
    * Extracts 'aws:cdk:warning|info|error' metadata entries from the stack synthesis
    */
-  private processMessages(stacks: cxapi.SynthesizedStack[]) {
+  private processMessages(stacks: cxapi.CloudFormationStackArtifact[]) {
     let warnings = false;
     let errors = false;
+
     for (const stack of stacks) {
-      for (const id of Object.keys(stack.metadata)) {
-        const metadata = stack.metadata[id];
-        for (const entry of metadata) {
-          switch (entry.type) {
-            case cxapi.WARNING_METADATA_KEY:
-              warnings = true;
-              this.printMessage(warning, 'Warning', id, entry);
-              break;
-            case cxapi.ERROR_METADATA_KEY:
-              errors = true;
-              this.printMessage(error, 'Error', id, entry);
-              break;
-            case cxapi.INFO_METADATA_KEY:
-              this.printMessage(print, 'Info', id, entry);
-              break;
-          }
+      for (const message of stack.messages) {
+        switch (message.level) {
+          case cxapi.SynthesisMessageLevel.WARNING:
+            warnings = true;
+            this.printMessage(warning, 'Warning', message.id, message.entry);
+            break;
+          case cxapi.SynthesisMessageLevel.ERROR:
+            errors = true;
+            this.printMessage(error, 'Error', message.id, message.entry);
+            break;
+          case cxapi.SynthesisMessageLevel.INFO:
+            this.printMessage(print, 'Info', message.id, message.entry);
+            break;
         }
       }
     }
@@ -266,31 +270,23 @@ export class AppStacks {
   private printMessage(logFn: (s: string) => void, prefix: string, id: string, entry: cxapi.MetadataEntry) {
     logFn(`[${prefix} at ${id}] ${entry.data}`);
 
-    if (this.props.verbose) {
+    if (this.props.verbose && entry.trace) {
       logFn(`  ${entry.trace.join('\n  ')}`);
     }
   }
 
-  private applyRenames(stacks: cxapi.SynthesizedStack[]): SelectedStack[] {
+  private applyRenames(stacks: cxapi.CloudFormationStackArtifact[]) {
     this.renames.validateSelectedStacks(stacks);
-
-    const ret = [];
     for (const stack of stacks) {
-      ret.push({
-        ...stack,
-        originalName: stack.name,
-        name: this.renames.finalName(stack.name),
-      });
+      stack.name = this.renames.finalName(stack.name);
     }
-
-    return ret;
   }
 }
 
 /**
  * Combine the names of a set of stacks using a comma
  */
-export function listStackNames(stacks: cxapi.SynthesizedStack[]): string {
+export function listStackNames(stacks: cxapi.CloudFormationStackArtifact[]): string {
   return stacks.map(s => s.name).join(', ');
 }
 
@@ -319,7 +315,9 @@ export enum ExtendedStackSelection {
  *
  * Modifies `selectedStacks` in-place.
  */
-function includeDownstreamStacks(selectedStacks: Map<string, cxapi.SynthesizedStack>, allStacks: Map<string, cxapi.SynthesizedStack>) {
+function includeDownstreamStacks(
+    selectedStacks: Map<string, cxapi.CloudFormationStackArtifact>,
+    allStacks: Map<string, cxapi.CloudFormationStackArtifact>) {
   const added = new Array<string>();
 
   let madeProgress = true;
@@ -328,7 +326,7 @@ function includeDownstreamStacks(selectedStacks: Map<string, cxapi.SynthesizedSt
 
     for (const [name, stack] of allStacks) {
       // Select this stack if it's not selected yet AND it depends on a stack that's in the selected set
-      if (!selectedStacks.has(name) && (stack.dependsOn || []).some(dependencyName => selectedStacks.has(dependencyName))) {
+      if (!selectedStacks.has(name) && (stack.depends || []).some(dep => selectedStacks.has(dep.id))) {
         selectedStacks.set(name, stack);
         added.push(name);
         madeProgress = true;
@@ -346,7 +344,9 @@ function includeDownstreamStacks(selectedStacks: Map<string, cxapi.SynthesizedSt
  *
  * Modifies `selectedStacks` in-place.
  */
-function includeUpstreamStacks(selectedStacks: Map<string, cxapi.SynthesizedStack>, allStacks: Map<string, cxapi.SynthesizedStack>) {
+function includeUpstreamStacks(
+    selectedStacks: Map<string, cxapi.CloudFormationStackArtifact>,
+    allStacks: Map<string, cxapi.CloudFormationStackArtifact>) {
   const added = new Array<string>();
   let madeProgress = true;
   while (madeProgress) {
@@ -354,7 +354,7 @@ function includeUpstreamStacks(selectedStacks: Map<string, cxapi.SynthesizedStac
 
     for (const stack of selectedStacks.values()) {
       // Select an additional stack if it's not selected yet and a dependency of a selected stack (and exists, obviously)
-      for (const dependencyName of (stack.dependsOn || [])) {
+      for (const dependencyName of stack.depends.map(x => x.id)) {
         if (!selectedStacks.has(dependencyName) && allStacks.has(dependencyName)) {
           added.push(dependencyName);
           selectedStacks.set(dependencyName, allStacks.get(dependencyName)!);
@@ -368,10 +368,3 @@ function includeUpstreamStacks(selectedStacks: Map<string, cxapi.SynthesizedStac
     print('Including dependency stacks: %s', colors.bold(added.join(', ')));
   }
 }
-
-export interface SelectedStack extends cxapi.SynthesizedStack {
-  /**
-   * The original name of the stack before renaming
-   */
-  originalName: string;
-}
diff --git a/packages/aws-cdk/lib/api/deploy-stack.ts b/packages/aws-cdk/lib/api/deploy-stack.ts
index d7c8f96da323a..b340606641531 100644
--- a/packages/aws-cdk/lib/api/deploy-stack.ts
+++ b/packages/aws-cdk/lib/api/deploy-stack.ts
@@ -10,7 +10,7 @@ import { ToolkitInfo } from './toolkit-info';
 import { changeSetHasNoChanges, describeStack, stackExists, stackFailedCreating, waitForChangeSet, waitForStack  } from './util/cloudformation';
 import { StackActivityMonitor } from './util/cloudformation/stack-activity-monitor';
 import { StackStatus } from './util/cloudformation/stack-status';
-import { SDK } from './util/sdk';
+import { SDK } from './util/sdk';
 
 type TemplateBodyParameter = {
   TemplateBody?: string
@@ -24,7 +24,7 @@ export interface DeployStackResult {
 }
 
 export interface DeployStackOptions {
-  stack: cxapi.SynthesizedStack;
+  stack: cxapi.CloudFormationStackArtifact;
   sdk: SDK;
   toolkitInfo?: ToolkitInfo;
   roleArn?: string;
@@ -115,7 +115,7 @@ async function getStackOutputs(cfn: aws.CloudFormation, stackName: string): Prom
  * @param sdk     an AWS SDK to use when interacting with S3
  * @param toolkitInfo information about the toolkit stack
  */
-async function makeBodyParameter(stack: cxapi.SynthesizedStack, toolkitInfo?: ToolkitInfo): Promise<TemplateBodyParameter> {
+async function makeBodyParameter(stack: cxapi.CloudFormationStackArtifact, toolkitInfo?: ToolkitInfo): Promise<TemplateBodyParameter> {
   const templateJson = toYAML(stack.template);
   if (toolkitInfo) {
     const s3KeyPrefix = `cdk/${stack.name}/`;
@@ -140,7 +140,7 @@ async function makeBodyParameter(stack: cxapi.SynthesizedStack, toolkitInfo?: To
 }
 
 export interface DestroyStackOptions {
-  stack: cxapi.SynthesizedStack;
+  stack: cxapi.CloudFormationStackArtifact;
   sdk: SDK;
   roleArn?: string;
   deployName?: string;
diff --git a/packages/aws-cdk/lib/api/deployment-target.ts b/packages/aws-cdk/lib/api/deployment-target.ts
index 61dc56458fc42..c2ea2f63bac5b 100644
--- a/packages/aws-cdk/lib/api/deployment-target.ts
+++ b/packages/aws-cdk/lib/api/deployment-target.ts
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-import cxapi = require('@aws-cdk/cx-api');
+import { CloudFormationStackArtifact } from '@aws-cdk/cx-api';
 import { debug } from '../logging';
 import { deserializeStructure } from '../serialize';
 import { Mode } from './aws-auth/credentials';
@@ -16,12 +16,12 @@ export type Template = { [key: string]: any };
  * Provisioners apply templates to the cloud infrastructure.
  */
 export interface IDeploymentTarget {
-  readCurrentTemplate(stack: cxapi.SynthesizedStack): Promise<Template>;
+  readCurrentTemplate(stack: CloudFormationStackArtifact): Promise<Template>;
   deployStack(options: DeployStackOptions): Promise<DeployStackResult>;
 }
 
 export interface DeployStackOptions {
-  stack: cxapi.SynthesizedStack;
+  stack: CloudFormationStackArtifact;
   roleArn?: string;
   deployName?: string;
   quiet?: boolean;
@@ -44,7 +44,7 @@ export class CloudFormationDeploymentTarget implements IDeploymentTarget {
     this.aws = props.aws;
   }
 
-  public async readCurrentTemplate(stack: cxapi.SynthesizedStack): Promise<Template> {
+  public async readCurrentTemplate(stack: CloudFormationStackArtifact): Promise<Template> {
     debug(`Reading existing template for stack ${stack.name}.`);
 
     const cfn = await this.aws.cloudFormation(stack.environment, Mode.ForReading);
diff --git a/packages/aws-cdk/lib/api/toolkit-info.ts b/packages/aws-cdk/lib/api/toolkit-info.ts
index 988fdf29a1756..81df8bb502462 100644
--- a/packages/aws-cdk/lib/api/toolkit-info.ts
+++ b/packages/aws-cdk/lib/api/toolkit-info.ts
@@ -209,7 +209,7 @@ async function objectExists(s3: aws.S3, bucket: string, key: string) {
   }
 }
 
-export async function loadToolkitInfo(environment: cxapi.Environment, sdk: SDK, stackName: string): Promise<ToolkitInfo | undefined> {
+export async function loadToolkitInfo(environment: cxapi.Environment, sdk: SDK, stackName: string): Promise<ToolkitInfo | undefined> {
   const cfn = await sdk.cloudFormation(environment, Mode.ForReading);
   const stack = await waitForStack(cfn, stackName);
   if (!stack) {
diff --git a/packages/aws-cdk/lib/api/util/cloudformation/stack-activity-monitor.ts b/packages/aws-cdk/lib/api/util/cloudformation/stack-activity-monitor.ts
index 8615b01583395..f54a6a7261914 100644
--- a/packages/aws-cdk/lib/api/util/cloudformation/stack-activity-monitor.ts
+++ b/packages/aws-cdk/lib/api/util/cloudformation/stack-activity-monitor.ts
@@ -72,7 +72,7 @@ export class StackActivityMonitor {
 
   constructor(private readonly cfn: aws.CloudFormation,
               private readonly stackName: string,
-              private readonly stack: cxapi.SynthesizedStack,
+              private readonly stack: cxapi.CloudFormationStackArtifact,
               private readonly resourcesTotal?: number) {
 
     if (this.resourcesTotal != null) {
@@ -175,7 +175,7 @@ export class StackActivityMonitor {
 
     let stackTrace = '';
     if (md && e.ResourceStatus && e.ResourceStatus.indexOf('FAILED') !== -1) {
-      stackTrace = `\n\t${md.entry.trace.join('\n\t\\_ ')}`;
+      stackTrace = md.entry.trace ? `\n\t${md.entry.trace.join('\n\t\\_ ')}` : '';
       reasonColor = colors.red;
     }
 
diff --git a/packages/aws-cdk/lib/api/util/sdk.ts b/packages/aws-cdk/lib/api/util/sdk.ts
index 59ce0adf02b7f..0af6db2470cea 100644
--- a/packages/aws-cdk/lib/api/util/sdk.ts
+++ b/packages/aws-cdk/lib/api/util/sdk.ts
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-import { Environment} from '@aws-cdk/cx-api';
+import cxapi = require('@aws-cdk/cx-api');
 import AWS = require('aws-sdk');
 import child_process = require('child_process');
 import fs = require('fs-extra');
@@ -88,7 +88,7 @@ export class SDK {
     this.credentialsCache = new CredentialsCache(this.defaultAwsAccount, defaultCredentialProvider);
   }
 
-  public async cloudFormation(environment: Environment, mode: Mode): Promise<AWS.CloudFormation> {
+  public async cloudFormation(environment: cxapi.Environment, mode: Mode): Promise<AWS.CloudFormation> {
     return new AWS.CloudFormation({
       ...this.retryOptions,
       region: environment.region,
@@ -112,7 +112,7 @@ export class SDK {
     });
   }
 
-  public async s3(environment: Environment, mode: Mode): Promise<AWS.S3> {
+  public async s3(environment: cxapi.Environment, mode: Mode): Promise<AWS.S3> {
     return new AWS.S3({
       ...this.retryOptions,
       region: environment.region,
@@ -128,7 +128,7 @@ export class SDK {
     });
   }
 
-  public async ecr(environment: Environment, mode: Mode): Promise<AWS.ECR> {
+  public async ecr(environment: cxapi.Environment, mode: Mode): Promise<AWS.ECR> {
     return new AWS.ECR({
       ...this.retryOptions,
       region: environment.region,
@@ -352,6 +352,11 @@ async function getCLICompatibleDefaultRegion(profile: string | undefined): Promi
     region = section && section.region;
   }
 
+  if (!region) {
+    const usedProfile = !profile ? '' : ` (profile: "${profile}")`;
+    throw new Error(`Unable to determine AWS region from environment or AWS configuration${usedProfile}`);
+  }
+
   return region;
 }
 
diff --git a/packages/aws-cdk/lib/assets.ts b/packages/aws-cdk/lib/assets.ts
index 9c88481909979..e8bc0f75a5523 100644
--- a/packages/aws-cdk/lib/assets.ts
+++ b/packages/aws-cdk/lib/assets.ts
@@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
 // tslint:disable-next-line:max-line-length
-import { ASSET_METADATA, ASSET_PREFIX_SEPARATOR, AssetMetadataEntry, FileAssetMetadataEntry, StackMetadata, SynthesizedStack } from '@aws-cdk/cx-api';
+import cxapi = require('@aws-cdk/cx-api');
 import { CloudFormation } from 'aws-sdk';
 import colors = require('colors');
 import fs = require('fs-extra');
@@ -11,9 +11,9 @@ import { prepareContainerAsset } from './docker';
 import { debug, success } from './logging';
 
 // tslint:disable-next-line:max-line-length
-export async function prepareAssets(stack: SynthesizedStack, toolkitInfo?: ToolkitInfo, ci?: boolean, reuse?: string[]): Promise<CloudFormation.Parameter[]> {
+export async function prepareAssets(stack: cxapi.CloudFormationStackArtifact, toolkitInfo?: ToolkitInfo, ci?: boolean, reuse?: string[]): Promise<CloudFormation.Parameter[]> {
   reuse = reuse || [];
-  const assets = findAssets(stack.metadata);
+  const assets = stack.assets;
 
   if (assets.length === 0) {
     return [];
@@ -36,39 +36,55 @@ export async function prepareAssets(stack: SynthesizedStack, toolkitInfo?: Toolk
       debug(`Preparing asset ${asset.id}: ${JSON.stringify(asset)}`);
     }
 
-    params = params.concat(await prepareAsset(asset, toolkitInfo, reuseAsset, ci));
+    if (!stack.assembly) {
+      throw new Error(`Unexpected: stack assembly is required in order to find assets in assemly directory`);
+    }
+
+    const assemblyDir = stack.assembly.directory;
+    params = params.concat(await prepareAsset(assemblyDir, asset, toolkitInfo, reuseAsset, ci));
   }
 
   return params;
 }
 
 // tslint:disable-next-line:max-line-length
-async function prepareAsset(asset: AssetMetadataEntry, toolkitInfo: ToolkitInfo, reuse: boolean, ci?: boolean): Promise<CloudFormation.Parameter[]> {
+async function prepareAsset(assemblyDir: string, asset: cxapi.AssetMetadataEntry, toolkitInfo: ToolkitInfo, reuse: boolean, ci?: boolean): Promise<CloudFormation.Parameter[]> {
   switch (asset.packaging) {
     case 'zip':
-      return await prepareZipAsset(asset, toolkitInfo, reuse);
+      return await prepareZipAsset(assemblyDir, asset, toolkitInfo, reuse);
     case 'file':
-      return await prepareFileAsset(asset, toolkitInfo, reuse);
+      return await prepareFileAsset(assemblyDir, asset, toolkitInfo, reuse);
     case 'container-image':
-      return await prepareContainerAsset(asset, toolkitInfo, reuse, ci);
+      return await prepareContainerAsset(assemblyDir, asset, toolkitInfo, reuse, ci);
     default:
       // tslint:disable-next-line:max-line-length
       throw new Error(`Unsupported packaging type: ${(asset as any).packaging}. You might need to upgrade your aws-cdk toolkit to support this asset type.`);
   }
 }
 
-async function prepareZipAsset(asset: FileAssetMetadataEntry, toolkitInfo: ToolkitInfo, reuse: boolean): Promise<CloudFormation.Parameter[]> {
+async function prepareZipAsset(
+    assemblyDir: string,
+    asset: cxapi.FileAssetMetadataEntry,
+    toolkitInfo: ToolkitInfo,
+    reuse: boolean): Promise<CloudFormation.Parameter[]> {
+
   if (reuse) {
-    return await prepareFileAsset(asset, toolkitInfo, reuse);
+    return await prepareFileAsset(assemblyDir, asset, toolkitInfo, reuse);
   }
 
-  debug('Preparing zip asset from directory:', asset.path);
+  const dirPath = path.isAbsolute(asset.path) ? asset.path : path.join(assemblyDir, asset.path);
+
+  if (!(await fs.pathExists(dirPath)) || !(await fs.stat(dirPath)).isDirectory()) {
+    throw new Error(`Unable to find directory: ${dirPath}`);
+  }
+
+  debug('Preparing zip asset from directory:', dirPath);
   const staging = await fs.mkdtemp(path.join(os.tmpdir(), 'cdk-assets'));
   try {
     const archiveFile = path.join(staging, 'archive.zip');
-    await zipDirectory(asset.path, archiveFile);
+    await zipDirectory(dirPath, archiveFile);
     debug('zip archive:', archiveFile);
-    return await prepareFileAsset(asset, toolkitInfo, reuse, archiveFile, 'application/zip');
+    return await prepareFileAsset(assemblyDir, asset, toolkitInfo, reuse, archiveFile, 'application/zip');
   } finally {
     await fs.remove(staging);
   }
@@ -81,7 +97,8 @@ async function prepareZipAsset(asset: FileAssetMetadataEntry, toolkitInfo: Toolk
  * @param contentType Content-type to use when uploading to S3 (none will be specified by default)
  */
 async function prepareFileAsset(
-    asset: FileAssetMetadataEntry,
+    assemblyDir: string,
+    asset: cxapi.FileAssetMetadataEntry,
     toolkitInfo: ToolkitInfo,
     reuse: boolean,
     filePath?: string,
@@ -96,6 +113,11 @@ async function prepareFileAsset(
   }
 
   filePath = filePath || asset.path;
+
+  if (!path.isAbsolute(filePath)) {
+    filePath = path.join(assemblyDir, filePath);
+  }
+
   debug('Preparing file asset:', filePath);
 
   const data = await fs.readFile(filePath);
@@ -120,21 +142,7 @@ async function prepareFileAsset(
 
   return [
     { ParameterKey: asset.s3BucketParameter, ParameterValue: toolkitInfo.bucketName },
-    { ParameterKey: asset.s3KeyParameter, ParameterValue: `${s3KeyPrefix}${ASSET_PREFIX_SEPARATOR}${filename}` },
+    { ParameterKey: asset.s3KeyParameter, ParameterValue: `${s3KeyPrefix}${cxapi.ASSET_PREFIX_SEPARATOR}${filename}` },
     { ParameterKey: asset.artifactHashParameter, ParameterValue: hash },
   ];
 }
-
-function findAssets(metadata: StackMetadata): AssetMetadataEntry[] {
-  const assets = new Array<AssetMetadataEntry>();
-
-  for (const k of Object.keys(metadata)) {
-    for (const entry of metadata[k]) {
-      if (entry.type === ASSET_METADATA) {
-        assets.push(entry.data);
-      }
-    }
-  }
-
-  return assets;
-}
diff --git a/packages/aws-cdk/lib/commands/context.ts b/packages/aws-cdk/lib/commands/context.ts
index 2796362e942a9..be58046f466b9 100644
--- a/packages/aws-cdk/lib/commands/context.ts
+++ b/packages/aws-cdk/lib/commands/context.ts
@@ -88,7 +88,7 @@ function invalidateContext(context: Context, key: string) {
   // Unset!
   if (context.has(key)) {
     context.unset(key);
-    print(`Context value ${colors.blue(key)} reset. It will be refreshed on the next SDK synthesis run.`);
+    print(`Context value ${colors.blue(key)} reset. It will be refreshed on next synthesis`);
   } else {
     print(`No context value with key ${colors.blue(key)}`);
   }
diff --git a/packages/aws-cdk/lib/diff.ts b/packages/aws-cdk/lib/diff.ts
index 5b5532070ced5..35711733bd6da 100644
--- a/packages/aws-cdk/lib/diff.ts
+++ b/packages/aws-cdk/lib/diff.ts
@@ -16,12 +16,12 @@ import { print, warning } from './logging';
  */
 export function printStackDiff(
       oldTemplate: any,
-      newTemplate: cxapi.SynthesizedStack,
+      newTemplate: cxapi.CloudFormationStackArtifact,
       strict: boolean,
       context: number,
       stream?: FormatStream): number {
 
-  if (_hasAssets(newTemplate)) {
+  if (newTemplate.assets.length > 0) {
     const issue = 'https://github.com/awslabs/aws-cdk/issues/395';
     warning(`The ${newTemplate.name} stack uses assets, which are currently not accounted for in the diff output! See ${issue}`);
   }
@@ -39,7 +39,7 @@ export function printStackDiff(
   }
 
   if (!diff.isEmpty) {
-    cfnDiff.formatDifferences(stream || process.stderr, diff, buildLogicalToPathMap(newTemplate), context);
+    cfnDiff.formatDifferences(stream || process.stderr, diff, newTemplate.logicalIdToPathMap, context);
   } else {
     print(colors.green('There were no differences'));
   }
@@ -60,7 +60,7 @@ export enum RequireApproval {
  *
  * Returns true if the changes are prompt-worthy, false otherwise.
  */
-export function printSecurityDiff(oldTemplate: any, newTemplate: cxapi.SynthesizedStack, requireApproval: RequireApproval): boolean {
+export function printSecurityDiff(oldTemplate: any, newTemplate: cxapi.CloudFormationStackArtifact, requireApproval: RequireApproval): boolean {
   const diff = cfnDiff.diffTemplate(oldTemplate, newTemplate.template);
 
   if (difRequiresApproval(diff, requireApproval)) {
@@ -68,7 +68,7 @@ export function printSecurityDiff(oldTemplate: any, newTemplate: cxapi.Synthesiz
     warning(`This deployment will make potentially sensitive changes according to your current security approval level (--require-approval ${requireApproval}).`);
     warning(`Please confirm you intend to make the following modifications:\n`);
 
-    cfnDiff.formatSecurityChanges(process.stdout, diff, buildLogicalToPathMap(newTemplate));
+    cfnDiff.formatSecurityChanges(process.stdout, diff, newTemplate.logicalIdToPathMap);
     return true;
   }
   return false;
@@ -88,21 +88,3 @@ function difRequiresApproval(diff: cfnDiff.TemplateDiff, requireApproval: Requir
     default: throw new Error(`Unrecognized approval level: ${requireApproval}`);
   }
 }
-
-function buildLogicalToPathMap(template: cxapi.SynthesizedStack) {
-  const map: { [id: string]: string } = {};
-  for (const path of Object.keys(template.metadata)) {
-    const md = template.metadata[path];
-    for (const e of md) {
-      if (e.type === 'aws:cdk:logicalId') {
-        const logical = e.data;
-        map[logical] = path;
-      }
-    }
-  }
-  return map;
-}
-
-function _hasAssets(stack: cxapi.SynthesizedStack) {
-  return Object.values(stack.metadata).find(entries => entries.find(entry => entry.type === cxapi.ASSET_METADATA) != null) != null;
-}
diff --git a/packages/aws-cdk/lib/docker.ts b/packages/aws-cdk/lib/docker.ts
index a5b95303549df..88d8ec8d09954 100644
--- a/packages/aws-cdk/lib/docker.ts
+++ b/packages/aws-cdk/lib/docker.ts
@@ -1,5 +1,6 @@
 import { ContainerImageAssetMetadataEntry } from '@aws-cdk/cx-api';
 import { CloudFormation } from 'aws-sdk';
+import path = require('path');
 import { ToolkitInfo } from './api/toolkit-info';
 import { debug, print } from './logging';
 import { shell } from './os';
@@ -26,7 +27,8 @@ import { shell } from './os';
  * CI is detected by the presence of the `CI` environment variable or
  * the `--ci` command line option.
  */
-export async function prepareContainerAsset(asset: ContainerImageAssetMetadataEntry,
+export async function prepareContainerAsset(assemblyDir: string,
+                                            asset: ContainerImageAssetMetadataEntry,
                                             toolkitInfo: ToolkitInfo,
                                             reuse: boolean,
                                             ci?: boolean): Promise<[CloudFormation.Parameter]> {
@@ -37,7 +39,9 @@ export async function prepareContainerAsset(asset: ContainerImageAssetMetadataEn
     ];
   }
 
-  debug(' 👑  Preparing Docker image asset:', asset.path);
+  const contextPath = path.isAbsolute(asset.path) ? asset.path : path.join(assemblyDir, asset.path);
+
+  debug(' 👑  Preparing Docker image asset:', contextPath);
 
   try {
     const ecr = await toolkitInfo.prepareEcrRepository(asset);
@@ -62,7 +66,7 @@ export async function prepareContainerAsset(asset: ContainerImageAssetMetadataEn
       'docker', 'build',
       ...buildArgs,
       '--tag', latest,
-      asset.path
+      contextPath
     ];
 
     const command = ci
@@ -77,9 +81,9 @@ export async function prepareContainerAsset(asset: ContainerImageAssetMetadataEn
     }
 
     // There's no way to make this quiet, so we can't use a PleaseHold. Print a header message.
-    print(` ⌛ Pushing Docker image for ${asset.path}; this may take a while.`);
+    print(` ⌛ Pushing Docker image for ${contextPath}; this may take a while.`);
     await shell(['docker', 'push', latest]);
-    debug(` 👑  Docker image for ${asset.path} pushed.`);
+    debug(` 👑  Docker image for ${contextPath} pushed.`);
 
     // Get the (single) repo-digest for latest, which'll be <ecr.repositoryUrl>@sha256:<repoImageSha256>
     const repoDigests = (await shell(['docker', 'image', 'inspect', latest, '--format', '{{range .RepoDigests}}{{.}}|{{end}}'])).trim();
diff --git a/packages/aws-cdk/lib/init-templates/app/csharp/.template.gitignore b/packages/aws-cdk/lib/init-templates/app/csharp/.template.gitignore
index cdc2138dcea2d..f555633ead8f0 100644
--- a/packages/aws-cdk/lib/init-templates/app/csharp/.template.gitignore
+++ b/packages/aws-cdk/lib/init-templates/app/csharp/.template.gitignore
@@ -1,5 +1,6 @@
 # CDK asset staging directory
 .cdk.staging
+cdk.out
 
 # Created by https://www.gitignore.io/api/csharp
 
diff --git a/packages/aws-cdk/lib/init-templates/app/fsharp/.template.gitignore b/packages/aws-cdk/lib/init-templates/app/fsharp/.template.gitignore
index cdc2138dcea2d..f555633ead8f0 100644
--- a/packages/aws-cdk/lib/init-templates/app/fsharp/.template.gitignore
+++ b/packages/aws-cdk/lib/init-templates/app/fsharp/.template.gitignore
@@ -1,5 +1,6 @@
 # CDK asset staging directory
 .cdk.staging
+cdk.out
 
 # Created by https://www.gitignore.io/api/csharp
 
diff --git a/packages/aws-cdk/lib/init-templates/app/java/.template.gitignore b/packages/aws-cdk/lib/init-templates/app/java/.template.gitignore
index 486800f4b4226..1db21f162937f 100644
--- a/packages/aws-cdk/lib/init-templates/app/java/.template.gitignore
+++ b/packages/aws-cdk/lib/init-templates/app/java/.template.gitignore
@@ -9,4 +9,5 @@ target
 
 # CDK asset staging directory
 .cdk.staging
+cdk.out
 
diff --git a/packages/aws-cdk/lib/init-templates/app/javascript/.template.gitignore b/packages/aws-cdk/lib/init-templates/app/javascript/.template.gitignore
index 80cabb688731b..21dc76264a308 100644
--- a/packages/aws-cdk/lib/init-templates/app/javascript/.template.gitignore
+++ b/packages/aws-cdk/lib/init-templates/app/javascript/.template.gitignore
@@ -2,3 +2,4 @@ node_modules
 
 # CDK asset staging directory
 .cdk.staging
+cdk.out
diff --git a/packages/aws-cdk/lib/init-templates/app/javascript/.template.npmignore b/packages/aws-cdk/lib/init-templates/app/javascript/.template.npmignore
index d4928914d3e88..5de422a0b42a0 100644
--- a/packages/aws-cdk/lib/init-templates/app/javascript/.template.npmignore
+++ b/packages/aws-cdk/lib/init-templates/app/javascript/.template.npmignore
@@ -1,2 +1,3 @@
 # CDK asset staging directory
 .cdk.staging
+cdk.out
diff --git a/packages/aws-cdk/lib/init-templates/app/python/.gitignore b/packages/aws-cdk/lib/init-templates/app/python/.gitignore
index 098bee3a753ab..383cdd5040f7e 100644
--- a/packages/aws-cdk/lib/init-templates/app/python/.gitignore
+++ b/packages/aws-cdk/lib/init-templates/app/python/.gitignore
@@ -7,3 +7,4 @@ __pycache__
 
 # CDK asset staging directory
 .cdk.staging
+cdk.out
diff --git a/packages/aws-cdk/lib/init-templates/app/typescript/.template.gitignore b/packages/aws-cdk/lib/init-templates/app/typescript/.template.gitignore
index 18d423e69d5b6..a63355605a9cd 100644
--- a/packages/aws-cdk/lib/init-templates/app/typescript/.template.gitignore
+++ b/packages/aws-cdk/lib/init-templates/app/typescript/.template.gitignore
@@ -4,3 +4,4 @@ node_modules
 
 # CDK asset staging directory
 .cdk.staging
+cdk.out
diff --git a/packages/aws-cdk/lib/init-templates/app/typescript/.template.npmignore b/packages/aws-cdk/lib/init-templates/app/typescript/.template.npmignore
index 95251b90d3d7e..c1d6d45dcf388 100644
--- a/packages/aws-cdk/lib/init-templates/app/typescript/.template.npmignore
+++ b/packages/aws-cdk/lib/init-templates/app/typescript/.template.npmignore
@@ -3,3 +3,4 @@
 
 # CDK asset staging directory
 .cdk.staging
+cdk.out
diff --git a/packages/aws-cdk/lib/init-templates/lib/typescript/.template.gitignore b/packages/aws-cdk/lib/init-templates/lib/typescript/.template.gitignore
index 18d423e69d5b6..a63355605a9cd 100644
--- a/packages/aws-cdk/lib/init-templates/lib/typescript/.template.gitignore
+++ b/packages/aws-cdk/lib/init-templates/lib/typescript/.template.gitignore
@@ -4,3 +4,4 @@ node_modules
 
 # CDK asset staging directory
 .cdk.staging
+cdk.out
diff --git a/packages/aws-cdk/lib/init-templates/lib/typescript/.template.npmignore b/packages/aws-cdk/lib/init-templates/lib/typescript/.template.npmignore
index 95251b90d3d7e..c1d6d45dcf388 100644
--- a/packages/aws-cdk/lib/init-templates/lib/typescript/.template.npmignore
+++ b/packages/aws-cdk/lib/init-templates/lib/typescript/.template.npmignore
@@ -3,3 +3,4 @@
 
 # CDK asset staging directory
 .cdk.staging
+cdk.out
diff --git a/packages/aws-cdk/lib/init-templates/sample-app/javascript/.template.gitignore b/packages/aws-cdk/lib/init-templates/sample-app/javascript/.template.gitignore
index 80cabb688731b..21dc76264a308 100644
--- a/packages/aws-cdk/lib/init-templates/sample-app/javascript/.template.gitignore
+++ b/packages/aws-cdk/lib/init-templates/sample-app/javascript/.template.gitignore
@@ -2,3 +2,4 @@ node_modules
 
 # CDK asset staging directory
 .cdk.staging
+cdk.out
diff --git a/packages/aws-cdk/lib/init-templates/sample-app/javascript/.template.npmignore b/packages/aws-cdk/lib/init-templates/sample-app/javascript/.template.npmignore
index d4928914d3e88..5de422a0b42a0 100644
--- a/packages/aws-cdk/lib/init-templates/sample-app/javascript/.template.npmignore
+++ b/packages/aws-cdk/lib/init-templates/sample-app/javascript/.template.npmignore
@@ -1,2 +1,3 @@
 # CDK asset staging directory
 .cdk.staging
+cdk.out
diff --git a/packages/aws-cdk/lib/init-templates/sample-app/python/.gitignore b/packages/aws-cdk/lib/init-templates/sample-app/python/.gitignore
index 098bee3a753ab..383cdd5040f7e 100644
--- a/packages/aws-cdk/lib/init-templates/sample-app/python/.gitignore
+++ b/packages/aws-cdk/lib/init-templates/sample-app/python/.gitignore
@@ -7,3 +7,4 @@ __pycache__
 
 # CDK asset staging directory
 .cdk.staging
+cdk.out
diff --git a/packages/aws-cdk/lib/init-templates/sample-app/typescript/.template.gitignore b/packages/aws-cdk/lib/init-templates/sample-app/typescript/.template.gitignore
index 18d423e69d5b6..a63355605a9cd 100644
--- a/packages/aws-cdk/lib/init-templates/sample-app/typescript/.template.gitignore
+++ b/packages/aws-cdk/lib/init-templates/sample-app/typescript/.template.gitignore
@@ -4,3 +4,4 @@ node_modules
 
 # CDK asset staging directory
 .cdk.staging
+cdk.out
diff --git a/packages/aws-cdk/lib/init-templates/sample-app/typescript/.template.npmignore b/packages/aws-cdk/lib/init-templates/sample-app/typescript/.template.npmignore
index 95251b90d3d7e..c1d6d45dcf388 100644
--- a/packages/aws-cdk/lib/init-templates/sample-app/typescript/.template.npmignore
+++ b/packages/aws-cdk/lib/init-templates/sample-app/typescript/.template.npmignore
@@ -3,3 +3,4 @@
 
 # CDK asset staging directory
 .cdk.staging
+cdk.out
diff --git a/packages/aws-cdk/lib/interactive.ts b/packages/aws-cdk/lib/interactive.ts
deleted file mode 100644
index 9c2070a24451c..0000000000000
--- a/packages/aws-cdk/lib/interactive.ts
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,53 +0,0 @@
-import colors = require('colors/safe');
-import { data } from './logging';
-
-let previousTemplate: any = { };
-
-export async function interactive(stack: any, verbose: boolean, synthStackFn: (x: any) => Promise<any>) {
-  let template;
-  try {
-    template = (await synthStackFn(stack)).template;
-  } catch (e) {
-    template = { error: e };
-  }
-
-  process.stdout.write('\x1B[2J\x1B[0f');
-  data(colors.underline(colors.green(stack.name)));
-
-  if (template.error) {
-    data(colors.red(template.error));
-  } else {
-    if (!template.Resources || Object.keys(template.Resources).length === 0) {
-      data(colors.dim(colors.white('(stack is empty)')));
-    } else {
-      for (const id of Object.keys(template.Resources).sort()) {
-        const res = template.Resources[id];
-
-        const resourceChanged = () => {
-          if (!previousTemplate.Resources || !(id in previousTemplate.Resources)) {
-            return true;
-          }
-
-          const prev = JSON.stringify(previousTemplate.Resources[id]);
-          const curr = JSON.stringify(res);
-          return (prev !== curr);
-        };
-
-        const globalColor: (x: any) => any = resourceChanged() ? colors.italic : (x: any) => x;
-
-        data(globalColor(`${colors.bold(colors.white(id))} ${colors.gray(res.Type)}`));
-
-        if (verbose && res.Properties) {
-          Object.keys(res.Properties).forEach(prop => {
-            const value = res.Properties[prop];
-            data(globalColor(`  ${colors.cyan(prop)}=${JSON.stringify(value)}`));
-          });
-        }
-      }
-    }
-  }
-
-  previousTemplate = template;
-
-  setTimeout(() => interactive(stack, verbose, synthStackFn), 2000);
-}
diff --git a/packages/aws-cdk/lib/renames.ts b/packages/aws-cdk/lib/renames.ts
index 7ef533e7b83cb..ec422d4f56af5 100644
--- a/packages/aws-cdk/lib/renames.ts
+++ b/packages/aws-cdk/lib/renames.ts
@@ -20,7 +20,7 @@ export class Renames {
    * We DO check that if there's a default rename (simple syntax) they
    * only selected one stack.
    */
-  public validateSelectedStacks(stacks: cxapi.SynthesizedStack[]) {
+  public validateSelectedStacks(stacks: cxapi.CloudFormationStackArtifact[]) {
     if (this.hasDefaultRename && stacks.length > 1) {
       throw new Error("When selecting multiple stacks, you must use the 'ORIGINALNAME:RENAME' pattern for renames.");
     }
diff --git a/packages/aws-cdk/lib/settings.ts b/packages/aws-cdk/lib/settings.ts
index 5f984f6e43fa7..90c72f714c861 100644
--- a/packages/aws-cdk/lib/settings.ts
+++ b/packages/aws-cdk/lib/settings.ts
@@ -20,7 +20,12 @@ export class Configuration {
   public settings = new Settings();
   public context = new Context();
 
-  private readonly defaultConfig = new Settings({ versionReporting: true, pathMetadata: true });
+  public readonly defaultConfig = new Settings({
+    versionReporting: true,
+    pathMetadata: true,
+    output: 'cdk.out'
+  });
+
   private readonly commandLineArguments: Settings;
   private readonly commandLineContext: Settings;
   private projectConfig: Settings;
@@ -56,6 +61,8 @@ export class Configuration {
       .merge(this.commandLineArguments)
       .makeReadOnly();
 
+    debug('merged settings:', this.settings.all);
+
     this.loaded = true;
 
     return this;
@@ -210,7 +217,8 @@ export class Settings {
       requireApproval: argv.requireApproval,
       toolkitStackName: argv.toolkitStackName,
       versionReporting: argv.versionReporting,
-      staging: argv.staging
+      staging: argv.staging,
+      output: argv.output,
     });
   }
 
diff --git a/packages/aws-cdk/package-lock.json b/packages/aws-cdk/package-lock.json
index a6afa9ca116a7..88c292dcda87f 100644
--- a/packages/aws-cdk/package-lock.json
+++ b/packages/aws-cdk/package-lock.json
@@ -143,9 +143,9 @@
 			"dev": true
 		},
 		"@types/sinon": {
-			"version": "7.0.11",
-			"resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@types/sinon/-/sinon-7.0.11.tgz",
-			"integrity": "sha512-6ee09Ugx6GyEr0opUIakmxIWFNmqYPjkqa3/BuxCBokA0klsOLPgMD5K4q40lH7/yZVuJVzOfQpd7pipwjngkQ==",
+			"version": "7.0.12",
+			"resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/@types/sinon/-/sinon-7.0.12.tgz",
+			"integrity": "sha512-fo0MWpVPSUrnZZhp9wyu+hhI3VJ9+Jhs+PWrokBTg3d2ryNPDOAWF1csIhQuYWBTn7KdZzXpRgpX2o6cwOlPWg==",
 			"dev": true
 		},
 		"@types/table": {
@@ -298,9 +298,9 @@
 			"integrity": "sha1-x57Zf380y48robyXkLzDZkdLS3k="
 		},
 		"aws-sdk": {
-			"version": "2.462.0",
-			"resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/aws-sdk/-/aws-sdk-2.462.0.tgz",
-			"integrity": "sha512-CSN6wiFKlAqtafKR7EzM31s6GxLAXKv4wBhuXiFvCjc0txYdXEhIsXMRZSOh6daTAjgPOps2IMTK9/adCSe+9g==",
+			"version": "2.463.0",
+			"resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/aws-sdk/-/aws-sdk-2.463.0.tgz",
+			"integrity": "sha512-bl0S6mxA2o8Hpy9LsMcPC9kVnrL4+B4qayiMlNMrp+8gcEMzJSMzfrUDX4SCWsqGYT25sZn8TDqTGJp7XIh3yw==",
 			"requires": {
 				"buffer": "4.9.1",
 				"events": "1.1.1",
@@ -1483,9 +1483,9 @@
 			"integrity": "sha1-8FKijacOYYkX7wqKw0wa5aaChrM="
 		},
 		"psl": {
-			"version": "1.1.31",
-			"resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/psl/-/psl-1.1.31.tgz",
-			"integrity": "sha512-/6pt4+C+T+wZUieKR620OpzN/LlnNKuWjy1iFLQ/UG35JqHlR/89MP1d96dUfkf6Dne3TuLQzOYEYshJ+Hx8mw=="
+			"version": "1.1.32",
+			"resolved": "https://registry.npmjs.org/psl/-/psl-1.1.32.tgz",
+			"integrity": "sha512-MHACAkHpihU/REGGPLj4sEfc/XKW2bheigvHO1dUqjaKigMp1C8+WLQYRGgeKFMsw5PMfegZcaN8IDXK/cD0+g=="
 		},
 		"pump": {
 			"version": "3.0.0",
diff --git a/packages/aws-cdk/test/api/test.deploy-stack.ts b/packages/aws-cdk/test/api/test.deploy-stack.ts
index ef5e4ed614e7a..eb64bf1a2c984 100644
--- a/packages/aws-cdk/test/api/test.deploy-stack.ts
+++ b/packages/aws-cdk/test/api/test.deploy-stack.ts
@@ -1,13 +1,12 @@
 import { Test } from 'nodeunit';
 import { deployStack } from '../../lib';
+import { testStack } from '../util';
 import { MockSDK } from '../util/mock-sdk';
 
-const FAKE_STACK = {
-  name: 'withouterrors',
+const FAKE_STACK = testStack({
+  stackName: 'withouterrors',
   template: { resource: 'noerrorresource' },
-  environment: { name: 'dev', account: '12345', region: 'here' },
-  metadata: {},
-};
+});
 
 export = {
   async 'do deploy executable change set with 0 changes'(test: Test) {
diff --git a/packages/aws-cdk/test/api/test.stacks.ts b/packages/aws-cdk/test/api/test.stacks.ts
index 2322668d3ad67..fcce58ded3223 100644
--- a/packages/aws-cdk/test/api/test.stacks.ts
+++ b/packages/aws-cdk/test/api/test.stacks.ts
@@ -4,32 +4,25 @@ import { SDK } from '../../lib';
 import { AppStacks, ExtendedStackSelection } from '../../lib/api/cxapp/stacks';
 import { Renames } from '../../lib/renames';
 import { Configuration } from '../../lib/settings';
-
-const FIXED_RESULT: cxapi.SynthesizeResponse = {
-  version: '1',
-  stacks: [
-    {
-      name: 'withouterrors',
-      template: { resource: 'noerrorresource' },
-      environment: { name: 'dev', account: '12345', region: 'here' },
-      metadata: {},
-    },
-    {
-      name: 'witherrors',
-      template: { resource: 'errorresource' },
-      environment: { name: 'dev', account: '12345', region: 'here' },
-      metadata: {
-        '/resource': [
-          {
-            type: cxapi.ERROR_METADATA_KEY,
-            data: 'this is an error',
-            trace: []
-          }
-        ]
+import { testAssembly, TestStackArtifact } from '../util';
+
+const FIXED_RESULT = testAssembly({
+  stackName: 'withouterrors',
+  template: { resource: 'noerrorresource' },
+},
+{
+  stackName: 'witherrors',
+  autoDeploy: true,
+  template: { resource: 'errorresource' },
+  metadata: {
+    '/resource': [
+      {
+        type: cxapi.ERROR_METADATA_KEY,
+        data: 'this is an error'
       }
-    }
-  ]
-};
+    ]
+  },
+});
 
 export = {
   async 'do not throw when selecting stack without errors'(test: Test) {
@@ -91,10 +84,8 @@ export = {
     // GIVEN
     const stacks = appStacksWith([
       {
-        name: 'NotAutoDeployedStack',
+        stackName: 'NotAutoDeployedStack',
         template: { resource: 'Resource' },
-        environment: { name: 'dev', account: '12345', region: 'here' },
-        metadata: {},
         autoDeploy: false,
       },
     ]);
@@ -112,10 +103,8 @@ export = {
     // GIVEN
     const stacks = appStacksWith([
       {
-        name: 'NotAutoDeployedStack',
+        stackName: 'NotAutoDeployedStack',
         template: { resource: 'Resource' },
-        environment: { name: 'dev', account: '12345', region: 'here' },
-        metadata: {},
         autoDeploy: false,
       },
     ]);
@@ -133,18 +122,15 @@ export = {
     // GIVEN
     const stacks = appStacksWith([
       {
-        name: 'NotAutoDeployedStack',
+        stackName: 'NotAutoDeployedStack',
         template: { resource: 'Resource' },
-        environment: { name: 'dev', account: '12345', region: 'here' },
-        metadata: {},
         autoDeploy: false,
       },
       {
-        name: 'AutoDeployedStack',
+        stackName: 'AutoDeployedStack',
+        autoDeploy: true,
+        depends: [ 'NotAutoDeployedStack' ],
         template: { resource: 'Resource' },
-        environment: { name: 'dev', account: '12345', region: 'here' },
-        metadata: {},
-        dependsOn: ['NotAutoDeployedStack'],
       },
     ]);
 
@@ -158,14 +144,11 @@ export = {
   },
 };
 
-function appStacksWith(stacks: cxapi.SynthesizedStack[]): AppStacks {
-  const response: cxapi.SynthesizeResponse = {
-    version: '1',
-    stacks,
-  };
+function appStacksWith(stacks: TestStackArtifact[]): AppStacks {
+  const assembly = testAssembly(...stacks);
   return new AppStacks({
     configuration: new Configuration(),
     aws: new SDK(),
-    synthesizer: async () => response,
+    synthesizer: async () => assembly,
   });
 }
diff --git a/packages/aws-cdk/test/test.assets.ts b/packages/aws-cdk/test/test.assets.ts
index 5d4a93fae0d2a..65c4581d6f2a4 100644
--- a/packages/aws-cdk/test/test.assets.ts
+++ b/packages/aws-cdk/test/test.assets.ts
@@ -1,44 +1,37 @@
-import { AssetMetadataEntry, ContainerImageAssetMetadataEntry, SynthesizedStack } from '@aws-cdk/cx-api';
 import { Test } from 'nodeunit';
 import { Uploaded, UploadProps } from '../lib';
 import { prepareAssets } from '../lib/assets';
+import { testAssembly, testStack } from './util';
 
 export = {
   async 'prepare assets'(test: Test) {
     // GIVEN
-    const stack: SynthesizedStack = {
-      name: 'SomeStack',
-      environment: {
-        name: 'myenv',
-        account: 'myaccount',
-        region: 'myregion'
-      },
-      metadata: {
-        '/SomeStack/SomeResource': [{
-          type: 'aws:cdk:asset',
-          data: {
-            path: __filename,
-            id: 'SomeStackSomeResource4567',
-            packaging: 'file',
-            s3BucketParameter: 'BucketParameter',
-            s3KeyParameter: 'KeyParameter',
-            artifactHashParameter: 'ArtifactHashParameter',
-          } as AssetMetadataEntry,
-          trace: []
-        }]
-      },
+    const assembly = testAssembly({
+      stackName: 'SomeStack',
       template: {
         Resources: {
           SomeResource: {
             Type: 'AWS::Something::Something'
           }
         }
-      }
-    };
+      },
+      assets: [
+        {
+          sourceHash: 'source-hash',
+          path: __filename,
+          id: 'SomeStackSomeResource4567',
+          packaging: 'file',
+          s3BucketParameter: 'BucketParameter',
+          s3KeyParameter: 'KeyParameter',
+          artifactHashParameter: 'ArtifactHashParameter',
+        }
+      ]
+    });
+
     const toolkit = new FakeToolkit();
 
     // WHEN
-    const params = await prepareAssets(stack, toolkit as any);
+    const params = await prepareAssets(assembly.getStack('SomeStack'), toolkit as any);
 
     // THEN
     test.deepEqual(params, [
@@ -52,27 +45,19 @@ export = {
 
   async 'prepare assets with reuse'(test: Test) {
     // GIVEN
-    const stack: SynthesizedStack = {
-      name: 'SomeStack',
-      environment: {
-        name: 'myenv',
-        account: 'myaccount',
-        region: 'myregion'
-      },
-      metadata: {
-        '/SomeStack/SomeResource': [{
-          type: 'aws:cdk:asset',
-          data: {
-            path: __filename,
-            id: 'SomeStackSomeResource4567',
-            packaging: 'file',
-            s3BucketParameter: 'BucketParameter',
-            s3KeyParameter: 'KeyParameter',
-            artifactHashParameter: 'ArtifactHashParameter',
-          } as AssetMetadataEntry,
-          trace: []
-        }]
-      },
+    const stack = testStack({
+      stackName: 'SomeStack',
+      assets: [
+        {
+          path: __filename,
+          id: 'SomeStackSomeResource4567',
+          packaging: 'file',
+          s3BucketParameter: 'BucketParameter',
+          s3KeyParameter: 'KeyParameter',
+          artifactHashParameter: 'ArtifactHashParameter',
+          sourceHash: 'boom'
+        }
+      ],
       template: {
         Resources: {
           SomeResource: {
@@ -80,7 +65,7 @@ export = {
           }
         }
       }
-    };
+    });
     const toolkit = new FakeToolkit();
 
     // WHEN
@@ -98,21 +83,17 @@ export = {
 
   async 'prepare container asset with reuse'(test: Test) {
     // GIVEN
-    const stack: SynthesizedStack = {
-      name: 'SomeStack',
-      environment: { name: 'myenv', account: 'myaccount', region: 'myregion' },
-      metadata: {
-        '/SomeStack/SomeResource': [{
-          type: 'aws:cdk:asset',
-          data: {
-            path: __dirname,
-            id: 'SomeStackSomeResource4567',
-            packaging: 'container-image',
-            imageNameParameter: 'asdf'
-          } as ContainerImageAssetMetadataEntry,
-          trace: []
-        }]
-      },
+    const stack = testStack({
+      stackName: 'SomeStack',
+      assets: [
+        {
+          path: __dirname,
+          id: 'SomeStackSomeResource4567',
+          packaging: 'container-image',
+          imageNameParameter: 'asdf',
+          sourceHash: 'source-hash'
+        }
+      ],
       template: {
         Resources: {
           SomeResource: {
@@ -120,7 +101,7 @@ export = {
           }
         }
       }
-    };
+    });
     const toolkit = new FakeToolkit();
 
     // WHEN
diff --git a/packages/aws-cdk/test/test.diff.ts b/packages/aws-cdk/test/test.diff.ts
index 04a6818cd745c..8d525f13d977b 100644
--- a/packages/aws-cdk/test/test.diff.ts
+++ b/packages/aws-cdk/test/test.diff.ts
@@ -8,25 +8,17 @@ import { IDeploymentTarget, Template } from '../lib/api/deployment-target';
 import { SDK } from '../lib/api/util/sdk';
 import { CdkToolkit } from '../lib/cdk-toolkit';
 import { Configuration } from '../lib/settings';
+import { testAssembly } from './util';
 
-const FIXED_RESULT: cxapi.SynthesizeResponse = {
-  version: '1',
-  stacks: [
-    {
-      name: 'A',
-      template: { resource: 'A' },
-      environment: { name: 'dev', account: '12345', region: 'here' },
-      metadata: {},
-    },
-    {
-      name: 'B',
-      template: { resource: 'B' },
-      environment: { name: 'dev', account: '12345', region: 'here' },
-      metadata: {},
-      dependsOn: ['A'],
-    }
-  ]
-};
+const FIXED_RESULT = testAssembly(    {
+  stackName: 'A',
+  template: { resource: 'A' },
+},
+{
+  stackName: 'B',
+  depends: [ 'A' ],
+  template: { resource: 'B' },
+});
 
 const appStacks = new AppStacks({
   configuration: new Configuration(),
@@ -38,7 +30,7 @@ export = {
   async 'diff can diff multiple stacks'(test: Test) {
     // GIVEN
     const provisioner: IDeploymentTarget = {
-      async readCurrentTemplate(_stack: cxapi.SynthesizedStack): Promise<Template> {
+      async readCurrentTemplate(_stack: cxapi.CloudFormationStackArtifact): Promise<Template> {
         return {};
       },
       async deployStack(_options: DeployStackOptions): Promise<DeployStackResult> {
diff --git a/packages/aws-cdk/test/test.docker.ts b/packages/aws-cdk/test/test.docker.ts
index 826c36ce63297..1c229ff3257aa 100644
--- a/packages/aws-cdk/test/test.docker.ts
+++ b/packages/aws-cdk/test/test.docker.ts
@@ -44,7 +44,7 @@ export = {
     };
 
     try {
-      await prepareContainerAsset(asset, toolkit, false);
+      await prepareContainerAsset('.', asset, toolkit, false);
     } catch (e) {
       if (!/STOPTEST/.test(e.toString())) { throw e; }
     }
@@ -86,7 +86,7 @@ export = {
     };
 
     try {
-      await prepareContainerAsset(asset, toolkit, false);
+      await prepareContainerAsset('.', asset, toolkit, false);
     } catch (e) {
       if (!/STOPTEST/.test(e.toString())) { throw e; }
     }
@@ -95,6 +95,51 @@ export = {
     const command = ['docker', 'build', '--build-arg', 'a=b', '--build-arg', 'c=d', '--tag', `uri:latest`, '/foo'];
     test.ok(shellStub.calledWith(command));
 
+    prepareEcrRepositoryStub.restore();
+    shellStub.restore();
+    test.done();
+  },
+
+  async 'relative path'(test: Test) {
+    // GIVEN
+    const toolkit = new ToolkitInfo({
+      sdk: new MockSDK(),
+      bucketName: 'BUCKET_NAME',
+      bucketEndpoint: 'BUCKET_ENDPOINT',
+      environment: { name: 'env', account: '1234', region: 'abc' }
+    });
+
+    const prepareEcrRepositoryStub = sinon.stub(toolkit, 'prepareEcrRepository').resolves({
+      repositoryUri: 'uri',
+      repositoryName: 'name'
+    });
+
+    const shellStub = sinon.stub(os, 'shell').rejects('STOPTEST');
+
+    // WHEN
+    const asset: cxapi.ContainerImageAssetMetadataEntry = {
+      id: 'assetId',
+      imageNameParameter: 'MyParameter',
+      packaging: 'container-image',
+      path: 'relative-to-assembly',
+      sourceHash: '1234567890abcdef',
+      repositoryName: 'some-name',
+      buildArgs: {
+        a: 'b',
+        c: 'd'
+      }
+    };
+
+    try {
+      await prepareContainerAsset('/assembly/dir/root', asset, toolkit, false);
+    } catch (e) {
+      if (!/STOPTEST/.test(e.toString())) { throw e; }
+    }
+
+    // THEN
+    const command = ['docker', 'build', '--build-arg', 'a=b', '--build-arg', 'c=d', '--tag', `uri:latest`, '/assembly/dir/root/relative-to-assembly'];
+    test.ok(shellStub.calledWith(command));
+
     prepareEcrRepositoryStub.restore();
     shellStub.restore();
     test.done();
diff --git a/packages/aws-cdk/test/util.ts b/packages/aws-cdk/test/util.ts
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000..0e413a1da1312
--- /dev/null
+++ b/packages/aws-cdk/test/util.ts
@@ -0,0 +1,47 @@
+import cxapi = require('@aws-cdk/cx-api');
+import fs = require('fs');
+import path = require('path');
+
+export interface TestStackArtifact {
+  stackName: string;
+  template: any;
+  autoDeploy?: boolean;
+  depends?: string[];
+  metadata?: cxapi.StackMetadata;
+  assets?: cxapi.AssetMetadataEntry[];
+}
+
+export function testAssembly(...stacks: TestStackArtifact[]): cxapi.CloudAssembly {
+  const builder = new cxapi.CloudAssemblyBuilder();
+
+  for (const stack of stacks) {
+    const templateFile = `${stack.stackName}.template.json`;
+    fs.writeFileSync(path.join(builder.outdir, templateFile), JSON.stringify(stack.template, undefined, 2));
+
+    const metadata: { [path: string]: cxapi.MetadataEntry[] } = { ...stack.metadata };
+
+    for (const asset of stack.assets || []) {
+      metadata[asset.id] = [
+        { type: cxapi.ASSET_METADATA, data: asset }
+      ];
+    }
+
+    builder.addArtifact(stack.stackName, {
+      type: cxapi.ArtifactType.AwsCloudFormationStack,
+      environment: 'aws://12345/here',
+      autoDeploy: stack.autoDeploy,
+      dependencies: stack.depends,
+      metadata,
+      properties: {
+        templateFile
+      }
+    });
+  }
+
+  return builder.build();
+}
+
+export function testStack(stack: TestStackArtifact) {
+  const assembly = testAssembly(stack);
+  return assembly.getStack(stack.stackName);
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/packages/decdk/package.json b/packages/decdk/package.json
index ec8633432cc66..63960b97d076a 100644
--- a/packages/decdk/package.json
+++ b/packages/decdk/package.json
@@ -153,4 +153,4 @@
   "engines": {
     "node": ">= 8.10.0"
   }
-}
+}
\ No newline at end of file
diff --git a/packages/decdk/test/synth.test.ts b/packages/decdk/test/synth.test.ts
index 6725a3ba9927c..27820793c8ee0 100644
--- a/packages/decdk/test/synth.test.ts
+++ b/packages/decdk/test/synth.test.ts
@@ -40,6 +40,7 @@ for (const templateFile of fs.readdirSync(dir)) {
       typeSystem
     });
 
-    expect(app.synthesizeStack(stackName).template).toMatchSnapshot(stackName);
+    const output = app.run().getStack(stackName);
+    expect(output.template).toMatchSnapshot(stackName);
   });
 }