diff --git a/.gitignore b/.gitignore index 6f90fd190..1a71fb7c8 100644 --- a/.gitignore +++ b/.gitignore @@ -21,3 +21,4 @@ sftp-config.json Thumbs.db +/svgs \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/1-js/01-getting-started/1-intro/article.md b/1-js/01-getting-started/1-intro/article.md index 40c280322..a95e432ea 100644 --- a/1-js/01-getting-started/1-intro/article.md +++ b/1-js/01-getting-started/1-intro/article.md @@ -24,9 +24,15 @@ Prohlížeč má zabudovaný engine, který se někdy nazývá „virtuální st Různé enginy mají různá „kódová označení“. Například: +<<<<<<< HEAD - [V8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V8_(JavaScript_engine)) -- v Chrome a Opeře. - [SpiderMonkey](https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpiderMonkey) -- ve Firefoxu. - Existují i jiná krycí jména, například „Chakra“ pro Internet Explorer, „ChakraCore“ pro Microsoft Edge, „Nitro“ a „SquirrelFish“ pro Safari, a tak dále. +======= +- [V8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V8_(JavaScript_engine)) -- in Chrome and Opera. +- [SpiderMonkey](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpiderMonkey) -- in Firefox. +- ...There are other codenames like "Chakra" for IE, "JavaScriptCore", "Nitro" and "SquirrelFish" for Safari, etc. +>>>>>>> b09e38c5573346c401a9f9f7410b4ff9be5f4115 Výše uvedené pojmy je dobré si pamatovat, protože se používají ve vývojářských článcích na internetu. Budeme je používat i my. Například „vlastnost X je podporována ve V8“ znamená, že pravděpodobně bude fungovat v Chrome a Opeře. diff --git a/1-js/02-first-steps/02-structure/article.md b/1-js/02-first-steps/02-structure/article.md index cf1dd53d2..e81fd343d 100644 --- a/1-js/02-first-steps/02-structure/article.md +++ b/1-js/02-first-steps/02-structure/article.md @@ -46,7 +46,7 @@ alert(3 + + 2); ``` -The code outputs `6` because JavaScript does not insert semicolons here. It is intuitively obvious that if the line ends with a plus `"+"`, then it is an "incomplete expression", so the semicolon is not required. And in this case that works as intended. +The code outputs `6` because JavaScript does not insert semicolons here. It is intuitively obvious that if the line ends with a plus `"+"`, then it is an "incomplete expression", so a semicolon there would be incorrect. And in this case, that works as intended. **But there are situations where JavaScript "fails" to assume a semicolon where it is really needed.** @@ -56,40 +56,36 @@ Errors which occur in such cases are quite hard to find and fix. If you're curious to see a concrete example of such an error, check this code out: ```js run -[1, 2].forEach(alert) +alert("Hello"); + +[1, 2].forEach(alert); ``` -No need to think about the meaning of the brackets `[]` and `forEach` yet. We'll study them later. For now, just remember the result of the code: it shows `1` then `2`. +No need to think about the meaning of the brackets `[]` and `forEach` yet. We'll study them later. For now, just remember the result of running the code: it shows `Hello`, then `1`, then `2`. -Now, let's add an `alert` before the code and *not* finish it with a semicolon: +Now let's remove the semicolon after the `alert`: ```js run no-beautify -alert("There will be an error") +alert("Hello") -[1, 2].forEach(alert) +[1, 2].forEach(alert); ``` -Now if we run the code, only the first `alert` is shown and then we have an error! - -But everything is fine again if we add a semicolon after `alert`: -```js run -alert("All fine now"); +The difference compared to the code above is only one character: the semicolon at the end of the first line is gone. -[1, 2].forEach(alert) -``` +If we run this code, only the first `Hello` shows (and there's an error, you may need to open the console to see it). There are no numbers any more. -Now we have the "All fine now" message followed by `1` and `2`. +That's because JavaScript does not assume a semicolon before square brackets `[...]`. So, the code in the last example is treated as a single statement. - -The error in the no-semicolon variant occurs because JavaScript does not assume a semicolon before square brackets `[...]`. - -So, because the semicolon is not auto-inserted, the code in the first example is treated as a single statement. Here's how the engine sees it: +Here's how the engine sees it: ```js run no-beautify -alert("There will be an error")[1, 2].forEach(alert) +alert("Hello")[1, 2].forEach(alert); ``` -But it should be two separate statements, not one. Such a merging in this case is just wrong, hence the error. This can happen in other situations. +Looks weird, right? Such merging in this case is just wrong. We need to put a semicolon after `alert` for the code to work correctly. + +This can happen in other situations also. ```` We recommend putting semicolons between statements even if they are separated by newlines. This rule is widely adopted by the community. Let's note once again -- *it is possible* to leave out semicolons most of the time. But it's safer -- especially for a beginner -- to use them. diff --git a/1-js/02-first-steps/04-variables/article.md b/1-js/02-first-steps/04-variables/article.md index 03eeaa6d0..0d5d2f30b 100644 --- a/1-js/02-first-steps/04-variables/article.md +++ b/1-js/02-first-steps/04-variables/article.md @@ -24,7 +24,7 @@ Now, we can put some data into it by using the assignment operator `=`: let message; *!* -message = 'Hello'; // store the string +message = 'Hello'; // store the string 'Hello' in the variable named message */!* ``` diff --git a/1-js/02-first-steps/05-types/article.md b/1-js/02-first-steps/05-types/article.md index 661760005..9fba1d8ad 100644 --- a/1-js/02-first-steps/05-types/article.md +++ b/1-js/02-first-steps/05-types/article.md @@ -64,7 +64,7 @@ Special numeric values formally belong to the "number" type. Of course they are We'll see more about working with numbers in the chapter . -## BigInt +## BigInt [#bigint-type] In JavaScript, the "number" type cannot represent integer values larger than (253-1) (that's `9007199254740991`), or less than -(253-1) for negatives. It's a technical limitation caused by their internal representation. diff --git a/1-js/02-first-steps/08-operators/article.md b/1-js/02-first-steps/08-operators/article.md index 498870e42..decf5bcfc 100644 --- a/1-js/02-first-steps/08-operators/article.md +++ b/1-js/02-first-steps/08-operators/article.md @@ -63,8 +63,8 @@ In school maths, we write that as ab. For instance: ```js run -alert( 2 ** 2 ); // 2² = 4 -alert( 2 ** 3 ); // 2³ = 8 +alert( 2 ** 2 ); // 2² = 4 +alert( 2 ** 3 ); // 2³ = 8 alert( 2 ** 4 ); // 2⁴ = 16 ``` diff --git a/1-js/02-first-steps/13-while-for/article.md b/1-js/02-first-steps/13-while-for/article.md index 2579b647d..a7a211569 100644 --- a/1-js/02-first-steps/13-while-for/article.md +++ b/1-js/02-first-steps/13-while-for/article.md @@ -106,7 +106,7 @@ Let's examine the `for` statement part-by-part: | part | | | |-------|----------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------| -| begin | `i = 0` | Executes once upon entering the loop. | +| begin | `let i = 0` | Executes once upon entering the loop. | | condition | `i < 3`| Checked before every loop iteration. If false, the loop stops. | | body | `alert(i)`| Runs again and again while the condition is truthy. | | step| `i++` | Executes after the body on each iteration. | @@ -377,7 +377,7 @@ label: { } ``` -...Although, 99.9% of the time `break` used is inside loops, as we've seen in the examples above. +...Although, 99.9% of the time `break` is used inside loops, as we've seen in the examples above. A `continue` is only possible from inside a loop. ```` diff --git a/1-js/02-first-steps/15-function-basics/article.md b/1-js/02-first-steps/15-function-basics/article.md index 0068bf194..b46f42924 100644 --- a/1-js/02-first-steps/15-function-basics/article.md +++ b/1-js/02-first-steps/15-function-basics/article.md @@ -20,10 +20,10 @@ function showMessage() { } ``` -The `function` keyword goes first, then goes the *name of the function*, then a list of *parameters* between the parentheses (comma-separated, empty in the example above) and finally the code of the function, also named "the function body", between curly braces. +The `function` keyword goes first, then goes the *name of the function*, then a list of *parameters* between the parentheses (comma-separated, empty in the example above, we'll see examples later) and finally the code of the function, also named "the function body", between curly braces. ```js -function name(parameters) { +function name(parameter1, parameter2, ... parameterN) { ...body... } ``` @@ -137,26 +137,23 @@ It's a good practice to minimize the use of global variables. Modern code has fe ## Parameters -We can pass arbitrary data to functions using parameters (also called *function arguments*) . +We can pass arbitrary data to functions using parameters. In the example below, the function has two parameters: `from` and `text`. ```js run -function showMessage(*!*from, text*/!*) { // arguments: from, text +function showMessage(*!*from, text*/!*) { // parameters: from, text alert(from + ': ' + text); } -*!* -showMessage('Ann', 'Hello!'); // Ann: Hello! (*) -showMessage('Ann', "What's up?"); // Ann: What's up? (**) -*/!* +*!*showMessage('Ann', 'Hello!');*/!* // Ann: Hello! (*) +*!*showMessage('Ann', "What's up?");*/!* // Ann: What's up? (**) ``` When the function is called in lines `(*)` and `(**)`, the given values are copied to local variables `from` and `text`. Then the function uses them. Here's one more example: we have a variable `from` and pass it to the function. Please note: the function changes `from`, but the change is not seen outside, because a function always gets a copy of the value: - ```js run function showMessage(from, text) { @@ -175,9 +172,21 @@ showMessage(from, "Hello"); // *Ann*: Hello alert( from ); // Ann ``` +When a value is passed as a function parameter, it's also called an *argument*. + +In other words, to put these terms straight: + +- A parameter is the variable listed inside the parentheses in the function declaration (it's a declaration time term) +- An argument is the value that is passed to the function when it is called (it's a call time term). + +We declare functions listing their parameters, then call them passing arguments. + +In the example above, one might say: "the function `showMessage` is declared with two parameters, then called with two arguments: `from` and `"Hello"`". + + ## Default values -If a parameter is not provided, then its value becomes `undefined`. +If a function is called, but an argument is not provided, then the corresponding value becomes `undefined`. For instance, the aforementioned function `showMessage(from, text)` can be called with a single argument: @@ -185,9 +194,9 @@ For instance, the aforementioned function `showMessage(from, text)` can be calle showMessage("Ann"); ``` -That's not an error. Such a call would output `"*Ann*: undefined"`. There's no `text`, so it's assumed that `text === undefined`. +That's not an error. Such a call would output `"*Ann*: undefined"`. As the value for `text` isn't passed, it becomes `undefined`. -If we want to use a "default" `text` in this case, then we can specify it after `=`: +We can specify the so-called "default" (to use if omitted) value for a parameter in the function declaration, using `=`: ```js run function showMessage(from, *!*text = "no text given"*/!*) { @@ -211,19 +220,23 @@ function showMessage(from, text = anotherFunction()) { ```smart header="Evaluation of default parameters" In JavaScript, a default parameter is evaluated every time the function is called without the respective parameter. -In the example above, `anotherFunction()` is called every time `showMessage()` is called without the `text` parameter. +In the example above, `anotherFunction()` isn't called at all, if the `text` parameter is provided. + +On the other hand, it's independently called every time when `text` is missing. ``` ### Alternative default parameters -Sometimes it makes sense to set default values for parameters not in the function declaration, but at a later stage, during its execution. +Sometimes it makes sense to assign default values for parameters not in the function declaration, but at a later stage. -To check for an omitted parameter, we can compare it with `undefined`: +We can check if the parameter is passed during the function execution, by comparing it with `undefined`: ```js run function showMessage(text) { + // ... + *!* - if (text === undefined) { + if (text === undefined) { // if the parameter is missing text = 'empty message'; } */!* @@ -237,18 +250,18 @@ showMessage(); // empty message ...Or we could use the `||` operator: ```js -// if text parameter is omitted or "" is passed, set it to 'empty' function showMessage(text) { + // if text is undefined or otherwise falsy, set it to 'empty' text = text || 'empty'; ... } ``` -Modern JavaScript engines support the [nullish coalescing operator](info:nullish-coalescing-operator) `??`, it's better when falsy values, such as `0`, are considered regular: +Modern JavaScript engines support the [nullish coalescing operator](info:nullish-coalescing-operator) `??`, it's better when most falsy values, such as `0`, should be considered "normal": ```js run -// if there's no "count" parameter, show "unknown" function showCount(count) { + // if count is undefined or null, show "unknown" alert(count ?? "unknown"); } diff --git a/1-js/03-code-quality/01-debugging-chrome/article.md b/1-js/03-code-quality/01-debugging-chrome/article.md index 8c52735bf..cf90f5492 100644 --- a/1-js/03-code-quality/01-debugging-chrome/article.md +++ b/1-js/03-code-quality/01-debugging-chrome/article.md @@ -1,4 +1,4 @@ -# Debugging in Chrome +# Debugging in the browser Before writing more complex code, let's talk about debugging. diff --git a/1-js/03-code-quality/06-polyfills/article.md b/1-js/03-code-quality/06-polyfills/article.md index 7efaf8677..02be20872 100644 --- a/1-js/03-code-quality/06-polyfills/article.md +++ b/1-js/03-code-quality/06-polyfills/article.md @@ -22,7 +22,7 @@ Here, in this chapter, our purpose is to get the gist of how they work, and thei ## Transpilers -A [transpiler](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source-to-source_compiler) is a special piece of software that can parse ("read and understand") modern code, and rewrite it using older syntax constructs, so that the result would be the same. +A [transpiler](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source-to-source_compiler) is a special piece of software that translates source code to another source code. It can parse ("read and understand") modern code and rewrite it using older syntax constructs, so that it'll also work in outdated engines. E.g. JavaScript before year 2020 didn't have the "nullish coalescing operator" `??`. So, if a visitor uses an outdated browser, it may fail to understand the code like `height = height ?? 100`. diff --git a/1-js/04-object-basics/06-constructor-new/1-two-functions-one-object/task.md b/1-js/04-object-basics/06-constructor-new/1-two-functions-one-object/task.md index 8c1fea8eb..d80113acc 100644 --- a/1-js/04-object-basics/06-constructor-new/1-two-functions-one-object/task.md +++ b/1-js/04-object-basics/06-constructor-new/1-two-functions-one-object/task.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ importance: 2 # Two functions – one object -Is it possible to create functions `A` and `B` such as `new A()==new B()`? +Is it possible to create functions `A` and `B` so that `new A() == new B()`? ```js no-beautify function A() { ... } diff --git a/1-js/04-object-basics/06-constructor-new/article.md b/1-js/04-object-basics/06-constructor-new/article.md index 5f8709ae1..184b30f86 100644 --- a/1-js/04-object-basics/06-constructor-new/article.md +++ b/1-js/04-object-basics/06-constructor-new/article.md @@ -64,13 +64,14 @@ Now if we want to create other users, we can call `new User("Ann")`, `new User(" That's the main purpose of constructors -- to implement reusable object creation code. -Let's note once again -- technically, any function can be used as a constructor. That is: any function can be run with `new`, and it will execute the algorithm above. The "capital letter first" is a common agreement, to make it clear that a function is to be run with `new`. +Let's note once again -- technically, any function (except arrow functions, as they don't have `this`) can be used as a constructor. It can be run with `new`, and it will execute the algorithm above. The "capital letter first" is a common agreement, to make it clear that a function is to be run with `new`. ````smart header="new function() { ... }" -If we have many lines of code all about creation of a single complex object, we can wrap them in constructor function, like this: +If we have many lines of code all about creation of a single complex object, we can wrap them in an immediately called constructor function, like this: ```js -let user = new function() { +// create a function and immediately call it with new +let user = new function() { this.name = "John"; this.isAdmin = false; @@ -80,7 +81,7 @@ let user = new function() { }; ``` -The constructor can't be called again, because it is not saved anywhere, just created and called. So this trick aims to encapsulate the code that constructs the single object, without future reuse. +This constructor can't be called again, because it is not saved anywhere, just created and called. So this trick aims to encapsulate the code that constructs the single object, without future reuse. ```` ## Constructor mode test: new.target diff --git a/1-js/04-object-basics/09-object-toprimitive/article.md b/1-js/04-object-basics/09-object-toprimitive/article.md index 36b6c6460..3e52a1d51 100644 --- a/1-js/04-object-basics/09-object-toprimitive/article.md +++ b/1-js/04-object-basics/09-object-toprimitive/article.md @@ -3,7 +3,24 @@ What happens when objects are added `obj1 + obj2`, subtracted `obj1 - obj2` or printed using `alert(obj)`? -In that case, objects are auto-converted to primitives, and then the operation is carried out. +JavaScript doesn't exactly allow to customize how operators work on objects. Unlike some other programming languages, such as Ruby or C++, we can't implement a special object method to handle an addition (or other operators). + +In case of such operations, objects are auto-converted to primitives, and then the operation is carried out over these primitives and results in a primitive value. + +That's an important limitation, as the result of `obj1 + obj2` can't be another object! + +E.g. we can't make objects representing vectors or matrices (or achievements or whatever), add them and expect a "summed" object as the result. Such architectural feats are automatically "off the board". + +So, because we can't do much here, there's no maths with objects in real projects. When it happens, it's usually because of a coding mistake. + +In this chapter we'll cover how an object converts to primitive and how to customize it. + +We have two purposes: + +1. It will allow us to understand what's going on in case of coding mistakes, when such an operation happened accidentally. +2. There are exceptions, where such operations are possible and look good. E.g. subtracting or comparing dates (`Date` objects). We'll come across them later. + +## Conversion rules In the chapter we've seen the rules for numeric, string and boolean conversions of primitives. But we left a gap for objects. Now, as we know about methods and symbols it becomes possible to fill it. @@ -11,11 +28,11 @@ In the chapter we've seen the rules for numeric, string 2. The numeric conversion happens when we subtract objects or apply mathematical functions. For instance, `Date` objects (to be covered in the chapter ) can be subtracted, and the result of `date1 - date2` is the time difference between two dates. 3. As for the string conversion -- it usually happens when we output an object like `alert(obj)` and in similar contexts. -## ToPrimitive - We can fine-tune string and numeric conversion, using special object methods. -There are three variants of type conversion, so-called "hints", described in the [specification](https://tc39.github.io/ecma262/#sec-toprimitive): +There are three variants of type conversion, that happen in various situations. + +They're called "hints", as described in the [specification](https://tc39.github.io/ecma262/#sec-toprimitive): `"string"` : For an object-to-string conversion, when we're doing an operation on an object that expects a string, like `alert`: @@ -82,11 +99,14 @@ Let's start from the first method. There's a built-in symbol named `Symbol.toPri ```js obj[Symbol.toPrimitive] = function(hint) { - // must return a primitive value + // here goes the code to convert this object to a primitive + // it must return a primitive value // hint = one of "string", "number", "default" }; ``` +If the method `Symbol.toPrimitive` exists, it's used for all hints, and no more methods are needed. + For instance, here `user` object implements it: ```js run @@ -111,12 +131,12 @@ As we can see from the code, `user` becomes a self-descriptive string or a money ## toString/valueOf -Methods `toString` and `valueOf` come from ancient times. They are not symbols (symbols did not exist that long ago), but rather "regular" string-named methods. They provide an alternative "old-style" way to implement the conversion. +If there's no `Symbol.toPrimitive` then JavaScript tries to find methods `toString` and `valueOf`: -If there's no `Symbol.toPrimitive` then JavaScript tries to find them and try in the order: +- For the "string" hint: `toString`, and if it doesn't exist, then `valueOf` (so `toString` has the priority for string conversions). +- For other hints: `valueOf`, and if it doesn't exist, then `toString` (so `valueOf` has the priority for maths). -- `toString -> valueOf` for "string" hint. -- `valueOf -> toString` otherwise. +Methods `toString` and `valueOf` come from ancient times. They are not symbols (symbols did not exist that long ago), but rather "regular" string-named methods. They provide an alternative "old-style" way to implement the conversion. These methods must return a primitive value. If `toString` or `valueOf` returns an object, then it's ignored (same as if there were no method). @@ -136,9 +156,9 @@ alert(user.valueOf() === user); // true So if we try to use an object as a string, like in an `alert` or so, then by default we see `[object Object]`. -And the default `valueOf` is mentioned here only for the sake of completeness, to avoid any confusion. As you can see, it returns the object itself, and so is ignored. Don't ask me why, that's for historical reasons. So we can assume it doesn't exist. +The default `valueOf` is mentioned here only for the sake of completeness, to avoid any confusion. As you can see, it returns the object itself, and so is ignored. Don't ask me why, that's for historical reasons. So we can assume it doesn't exist. -Let's implement these methods. +Let's implement these methods to customize the conversion. For instance, here `user` does the same as above using a combination of `toString` and `valueOf` instead of `Symbol.toPrimitive`: @@ -183,7 +203,7 @@ alert(user + 500); // toString -> John500 In the absence of `Symbol.toPrimitive` and `valueOf`, `toString` will handle all primitive conversions. -## Return types +### A conversion can return any primitive type The important thing to know about all primitive-conversion methods is that they do not necessarily return the "hinted" primitive. @@ -252,4 +272,6 @@ The conversion algorithm is: 3. Otherwise if hint is `"number"` or `"default"` - try `obj.valueOf()` and `obj.toString()`, whatever exists. -In practice, it's often enough to implement only `obj.toString()` as a "catch-all" method for all conversions that return a "human-readable" representation of an object, for logging or debugging purposes. +In practice, it's often enough to implement only `obj.toString()` as a "catch-all" method for string conversions that should return a "human-readable" representation of an object, for logging or debugging purposes. + +As for math operations, JavaScript doesn't provide a way to "override" them using methods, so real life projects rarely use them on objects. diff --git a/1-js/05-data-types/01-primitives-methods/article.md b/1-js/05-data-types/01-primitives-methods/article.md index 6c13acda6..552c3b3b6 100644 --- a/1-js/05-data-types/01-primitives-methods/article.md +++ b/1-js/05-data-types/01-primitives-methods/article.md @@ -39,7 +39,7 @@ Objects are "heavier" than primitives. They require additional resources to supp Here's the paradox faced by the creator of JavaScript: -- There are many things one would want to do with a primitive like a string or a number. It would be great to access them as methods. +- There are many things one would want to do with a primitive like a string or a number. It would be great to access them using methods. - Primitives must be as fast and lightweight as possible. The solution looks a little bit awkward, but here it is: diff --git a/1-js/05-data-types/02-number/article.md b/1-js/05-data-types/02-number/article.md index 6fd513f43..547204b57 100644 --- a/1-js/05-data-types/02-number/article.md +++ b/1-js/05-data-types/02-number/article.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ In modern JavaScript, there are two types of numbers: 1. Regular numbers in JavaScript are stored in 64-bit format [IEEE-754](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_754-2008_revision), also known as "double precision floating point numbers". These are numbers that we're using most of the time, and we'll talk about them in this chapter. -2. BigInt numbers, to represent integers of arbitrary length. They are sometimes needed, because a regular number can't exceed 253 or be less than -253. As bigints are used in few special areas, we devote them a special chapter . +2. BigInt numbers, to represent integers of arbitrary length. They are sometimes needed, because a regular number can't safely exceed 253 or be less than -253. As bigints are used in few special areas, we devote them a special chapter . So here we'll talk about regular numbers. Let's expand our knowledge of them. @@ -37,8 +37,8 @@ alert( 7.3e9 ); // 7.3 billions (same as 7300000000 or 7_300_000_000) In other words, `e` multiplies the number by `1` with the given zeroes count. ```js -1e3 = 1 * 1000 // e3 means *1000 -1.23e6 = 1.23 * 1000000 // e6 means *1000000 +1e3 === 1 * 1000; // e3 means *1000 +1.23e6 === 1.23 * 1000000; // e6 means *1000000 ``` Now let's write something very small. Say, 1 microsecond (one millionth of a second): @@ -53,16 +53,16 @@ Just like before, using `"e"` can help. If we'd like to avoid writing the zeroes let ms = 1e-6; // six zeroes to the left from 1 ``` -If we count the zeroes in `0.000001`, there are 6 of them. So naturally it's `1e-6`. +If we count the zeroes in `0.000001`, there are 6 of them. So naturally it's `1e-6`. In other words, a negative number after `"e"` means a division by 1 with the given number of zeroes: ```js // -3 divides by 1 with 3 zeroes -1e-3 = 1 / 1000 (=0.001) +1e-3 === 1 / 1000; // 0.001 // -6 divides by 1 with 6 zeroes -1.23e-6 = 1.23 / 1000000 (=0.00000123) +1.23e-6 === 1.23 / 1000000; // 0.00000123 ``` ### Hex, binary and octal numbers @@ -118,6 +118,7 @@ Please note that two dots in `123456..toString(36)` is not a typo. If we want to If we placed a single dot: `123456.toString(36)`, then there would be an error, because JavaScript syntax implies the decimal part after the first dot. And if we place one more dot, then JavaScript knows that the decimal part is empty and now goes the method. Also could write `(123456).toString(36)`. + ``` ## Rounding @@ -328,7 +329,7 @@ let num = +prompt("Enter a number", ''); alert( isFinite(num) ); ``` -Please note that an empty or a space-only string is treated as `0` in all numeric functions including `isFinite`. +Please note that an empty or a space-only string is treated as `0` in all numeric functions including `isFinite`. ```smart header="Compare with `Object.is`" diff --git a/1-js/05-data-types/03-string/article.md b/1-js/05-data-types/03-string/article.md index d5bda9690..3b07eccad 100644 --- a/1-js/05-data-types/03-string/article.md +++ b/1-js/05-data-types/03-string/article.md @@ -526,7 +526,7 @@ Now it becomes obvious why `a > Z`. The characters are compared by their numeric code. The greater code means that the character is greater. The code for `a` (97) is greater than the code for `Z` (90). - All lowercase letters go after uppercase letters because their codes are greater. -- Some letters like `Ö` stand apart from the main alphabet. Here, it's code is greater than anything from `a` to `z`. +- Some letters like `Ö` stand apart from the main alphabet. Here, its code is greater than anything from `a` to `z`. ### Correct comparisons [#correct-comparisons] diff --git a/1-js/05-data-types/04-array/article.md b/1-js/05-data-types/04-array/article.md index d722341bb..a86dead64 100644 --- a/1-js/05-data-types/04-array/article.md +++ b/1-js/05-data-types/04-array/article.md @@ -379,9 +379,7 @@ alert( arr[0] ); // undefined! no elements. alert( arr.length ); // length 2 ``` -In the code above, `new Array(number)` has all elements `undefined`. - -To evade such surprises, we usually use square brackets, unless we really know what we're doing. +To avoid such surprises, we usually use square brackets, unless we really know what we're doing. ## Multidimensional arrays diff --git a/1-js/05-data-types/05-array-methods/12-reduce-object/task.md b/1-js/05-data-types/05-array-methods/12-reduce-object/task.md index d3c8f8eb1..7f0082357 100644 --- a/1-js/05-data-types/05-array-methods/12-reduce-object/task.md +++ b/1-js/05-data-types/05-array-methods/12-reduce-object/task.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ importance: 4 # Create keyed object from array -Let's say we received an array of users in the form `{id:..., name:..., age... }`. +Let's say we received an array of users in the form `{id:..., name:..., age:... }`. Create a function `groupById(arr)` that creates an object from it, with `id` as the key, and array items as values. diff --git a/1-js/05-data-types/09-keys-values-entries/article.md b/1-js/05-data-types/09-keys-values-entries/article.md index 28c48a533..bef678f53 100644 --- a/1-js/05-data-types/09-keys-values-entries/article.md +++ b/1-js/05-data-types/09-keys-values-entries/article.md @@ -77,7 +77,7 @@ Objects lack many methods that exist for arrays, e.g. `map`, `filter` and others If we'd like to apply them, then we can use `Object.entries` followed by `Object.fromEntries`: 1. Use `Object.entries(obj)` to get an array of key/value pairs from `obj`. -2. Use array methods on that array, e.g. `map`. +2. Use array methods on that array, e.g. `map`, to transform these key/value pairs. 3. Use `Object.fromEntries(array)` on the resulting array to turn it back into an object. For example, we have an object with prices, and would like to double them: @@ -91,12 +91,13 @@ let prices = { *!* let doublePrices = Object.fromEntries( - // convert to array, map, and then fromEntries gives back the object - Object.entries(prices).map(([key, value]) => [key, value * 2]) + // convert prices to array, map each key/value pair into another pair + // and then fromEntries gives back the object + Object.entries(prices).map(entry => [entry[0], entry[1] * 2]) ); */!* alert(doublePrices.meat); // 8 -``` +``` -It may look difficult at first sight, but becomes easy to understand after you use it once or twice. We can make powerful chains of transforms this way. +It may look difficult at first sight, but becomes easy to understand after you use it once or twice. We can make powerful chains of transforms this way. diff --git a/1-js/06-advanced-functions/04-var/article.md b/1-js/06-advanced-functions/04-var/article.md index d433cbc5d..cade0147f 100644 --- a/1-js/06-advanced-functions/04-var/article.md +++ b/1-js/06-advanced-functions/04-var/article.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ ```smart header="This article is for understanding old scripts" The information in this article is useful for understanding old scripts. -That's not how we write a new code. +That's not how we write new code. ``` In the very first chapter about [variables](info:variables), we mentioned three ways of variable declaration: diff --git a/1-js/06-advanced-functions/09-call-apply-decorators/article.md b/1-js/06-advanced-functions/09-call-apply-decorators/article.md index acba0965c..c5d785493 100644 --- a/1-js/06-advanced-functions/09-call-apply-decorators/article.md +++ b/1-js/06-advanced-functions/09-call-apply-decorators/article.md @@ -301,18 +301,18 @@ The only syntax difference between `call` and `apply` is that `call` expects a l So these two calls are almost equivalent: ```js -func.call(context, ...args); // pass an array as list with spread syntax -func.apply(context, args); // is same as using call +func.call(context, ...args); +func.apply(context, args); ``` -There's only a subtle difference: +They perform the same call of `func` with given context and arguments. + +There's only a subtle difference regarding `args`: - The spread syntax `...` allows to pass *iterable* `args` as the list to `call`. - The `apply` accepts only *array-like* `args`. -So, where we expect an iterable, `call` works, and where we expect an array-like, `apply` works. - -And for objects that are both iterable and array-like, like a real array, we can use any of them, but `apply` will probably be faster, because most JavaScript engines internally optimize it better. +...And for objects that are both iterable and array-like, such as a real array, we can use any of them, but `apply` will probably be faster, because most JavaScript engines internally optimize it better. Passing all arguments along with the context to another function is called *call forwarding*. diff --git a/1-js/07-object-properties/01-property-descriptors/article.md b/1-js/07-object-properties/01-property-descriptors/article.md index f8f8d21d4..3b72635c3 100644 --- a/1-js/07-object-properties/01-property-descriptors/article.md +++ b/1-js/07-object-properties/01-property-descriptors/article.md @@ -19,7 +19,7 @@ We didn't see them yet, because generally they do not show up. When we create a First, let's see how to get those flags. -The method [Object.getOwnPropertyDescriptor](mdn:js/Object/getOwnPropertyDescriptor) allows to query the *full* information about a property. +The method [Object.getOwnPropertyDescriptor](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Global_Objects/Object/getOwnPropertyDescriptor) allows to query the *full* information about a property. The syntax is: ```js @@ -54,7 +54,7 @@ alert( JSON.stringify(descriptor, null, 2 ) ); */ ``` -To change the flags, we can use [Object.defineProperty](mdn:js/Object/defineProperty). +To change the flags, we can use [Object.defineProperty](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Global_Objects/Object/defineProperty). The syntax is: @@ -194,7 +194,7 @@ alert(Object.keys(user)); // name The non-configurable flag (`configurable:false`) is sometimes preset for built-in objects and properties. -A non-configurable property can not be deleted. +A non-configurable property can't be deleted, its attributes can't be modified. For instance, `Math.PI` is non-writable, non-enumerable and non-configurable: @@ -214,20 +214,23 @@ alert( JSON.stringify(descriptor, null, 2 ) ); So, a programmer is unable to change the value of `Math.PI` or overwrite it. ```js run -Math.PI = 3; // Error +Math.PI = 3; // Error, because it has writable: false // delete Math.PI won't work either ``` -Making a property non-configurable is a one-way road. We cannot change it back with `defineProperty`. +We also can't change `Math.PI` to be `writable` again: + +```js run +// Error, because of configurable: false +Object.defineProperty(Math, "PI", { writable: true }); +``` -To be precise, non-configurability imposes several restrictions on `defineProperty`: -1. Can't change `configurable` flag. -2. Can't change `enumerable` flag. -3. Can't change `writable: false` to `true` (the other way round works). -4. Can't change `get/set` for an accessor property (but can assign them if absent). +There's absolutely nothing we can do with `Math.PI`. -**The idea of "configurable: false" is to prevent changes of property flags and its deletion, while allowing to change its value.** +Making a property non-configurable is a one-way road. We cannot change it back with `defineProperty`. + +**Please note: `configurable: false` prevents changes of property flags and its deletion, while allowing to change its value.** Here `user.name` is non-configurable, but we can still change it (as it's writable): @@ -244,7 +247,7 @@ user.name = "Pete"; // works fine delete user.name; // Error ``` -And here we make `user.name` a "forever sealed" constant: +And here we make `user.name` a "forever sealed" constant, just like the built-in `Math.PI`: ```js run let user = { @@ -263,10 +266,15 @@ delete user.name; Object.defineProperty(user, "name", { value: "Pete" }); ``` +```smart header="The only attribute change possible: writable true -> false" +There's a minor exception about changing flags. + +We can change `writable: true` to `false` for a non-configurable property, thus preventing its value modification (to add another layer of protection). Not the other way around though. +``` ## Object.defineProperties -There's a method [Object.defineProperties(obj, descriptors)](mdn:js/Object/defineProperties) that allows to define many properties at once. +There's a method [Object.defineProperties(obj, descriptors)](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Global_Objects/Object/defineProperties) that allows to define many properties at once. The syntax is: @@ -292,7 +300,7 @@ So, we can set many properties at once. ## Object.getOwnPropertyDescriptors -To get all property descriptors at once, we can use the method [Object.getOwnPropertyDescriptors(obj)](mdn:js/Object/getOwnPropertyDescriptors). +To get all property descriptors at once, we can use the method [Object.getOwnPropertyDescriptors(obj)](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Global_Objects/Object/getOwnPropertyDescriptors). Together with `Object.defineProperties` it can be used as a "flags-aware" way of cloning an object: @@ -318,24 +326,24 @@ Property descriptors work at the level of individual properties. There are also methods that limit access to the *whole* object: -[Object.preventExtensions(obj)](mdn:js/Object/preventExtensions) +[Object.preventExtensions(obj)](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Global_Objects/Object/preventExtensions) : Forbids the addition of new properties to the object. -[Object.seal(obj)](mdn:js/Object/seal) +[Object.seal(obj)](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Global_Objects/Object/seal) : Forbids adding/removing of properties. Sets `configurable: false` for all existing properties. -[Object.freeze(obj)](mdn:js/Object/freeze) +[Object.freeze(obj)](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Global_Objects/Object/freeze) : Forbids adding/removing/changing of properties. Sets `configurable: false, writable: false` for all existing properties. And also there are tests for them: -[Object.isExtensible(obj)](mdn:js/Object/isExtensible) +[Object.isExtensible(obj)](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Global_Objects/Object/isExtensible) : Returns `false` if adding properties is forbidden, otherwise `true`. -[Object.isSealed(obj)](mdn:js/Object/isSealed) +[Object.isSealed(obj)](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Global_Objects/Object/isSealed) : Returns `true` if adding/removing properties is forbidden, and all existing properties have `configurable: false`. -[Object.isFrozen(obj)](mdn:js/Object/isFrozen) +[Object.isFrozen(obj)](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Global_Objects/Object/isFrozen) : Returns `true` if adding/removing/changing properties is forbidden, and all current properties are `configurable: false, writable: false`. These methods are rarely used in practice. diff --git a/1-js/08-prototypes/01-prototype-inheritance/article.md b/1-js/08-prototypes/01-prototype-inheritance/article.md index cfec05689..02236af75 100644 --- a/1-js/08-prototypes/01-prototype-inheritance/article.md +++ b/1-js/08-prototypes/01-prototype-inheritance/article.md @@ -12,7 +12,7 @@ In JavaScript, objects have a special hidden property `[[Prototype]]` (as named ![prototype](object-prototype-empty.svg) -When we read a property from `object`, and it's missing, JavaScript automatically takes it from the prototype. In programming, such thing is called "prototypal inheritance". And soon we'll study many examples of such inheritance, as well as cooler language features built upon it. +When we read a property from `object`, and it's missing, JavaScript automatically takes it from the prototype. In programming, this is called "prototypal inheritance". And soon we'll study many examples of such inheritance, as well as cooler language features built upon it. The property `[[Prototype]]` is internal and hidden, but there are many ways to set it. diff --git a/1-js/08-prototypes/02-function-prototype/4-new-object-same-constructor/solution.md b/1-js/08-prototypes/02-function-prototype/4-new-object-same-constructor/solution.md index 0073e252e..372d50dd6 100644 --- a/1-js/08-prototypes/02-function-prototype/4-new-object-same-constructor/solution.md +++ b/1-js/08-prototypes/02-function-prototype/4-new-object-same-constructor/solution.md @@ -38,7 +38,12 @@ Why `user2.name` is `undefined`? Here's how `new user.constructor('Pete')` works: 1. First, it looks for `constructor` in `user`. Nothing. -2. Then it follows the prototype chain. The prototype of `user` is `User.prototype`, and it also has nothing. -3. The value of `User.prototype` is a plain object `{}`, its prototype is `Object.prototype`. And there is `Object.prototype.constructor == Object`. So it is used. +2. Then it follows the prototype chain. The prototype of `user` is `User.prototype`, and it also has no `constructor` (because we "forgot" to set it right!). +3. Going further up the chain, `User.prototype` is a plain object, its prototype is the built-in `Object.prototype`. +4. Finally, for the built-in `Object.prototype`, there's a built-in `Object.prototype.constructor == Object`. So it is used. -At the end, we have `let user2 = new Object('Pete')`. The built-in `Object` constructor ignores arguments, it always creates an empty object, similar to `let user2 = {}`, that's what we have in `user2` after all. +Finally, at the end, we have `let user2 = new Object('Pete')`. + +Probably, that's not what we want. We'd like to create `new User`, not `new Object`. That's the outcome of the missing `constructor`. + +(Just in case you're curious, the `new Object(...)` call converts its argument to an object. That's a theoretical thing, in practice no one calls `new Object` with a value, and generally we don't use `new Object` to make objects at all). \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/1-js/09-classes/01-class/article.md b/1-js/09-classes/01-class/article.md index 8d4731e1b..d19b9ca9a 100644 --- a/1-js/09-classes/01-class/article.md +++ b/1-js/09-classes/01-class/article.md @@ -144,7 +144,7 @@ The result of this definition is about the same. So, there are indeed reasons wh Still, there are important differences. -1. First, a function created by `class` is labelled by a special internal property `[[FunctionKind]]:"classConstructor"`. So it's not entirely the same as creating it manually. +1. First, a function created by `class` is labelled by a special internal property `[[IsClassConstructor]]: true`. So it's not entirely the same as creating it manually. The language checks for that property in a variety of places. For example, unlike a regular function, it must be called with `new`: diff --git a/1-js/09-classes/04-private-protected-properties-methods/article.md b/1-js/09-classes/04-private-protected-properties-methods/article.md index 2d47464c4..91efb89ee 100644 --- a/1-js/09-classes/04-private-protected-properties-methods/article.md +++ b/1-js/09-classes/04-private-protected-properties-methods/article.md @@ -116,7 +116,7 @@ class CoffeeMachine { let coffeeMachine = new CoffeeMachine(100); // add water -coffeeMachine.waterAmount = -10; // Error: Negative water +coffeeMachine.waterAmount = -10; // _waterAmount will become 0, not -10 ``` Now the access is under control, so setting the water amount below zero becomes impossible. @@ -192,7 +192,7 @@ There's a finished JavaScript proposal, almost in the standard, that provides la Privates should start with `#`. They are only accessible from inside the class. -For instance, here's a private `#waterLimit` property and the water-checking private method `#checkWater`: +For instance, here's a private `#waterLimit` property and the water-checking private method `#fixWaterAmount`: ```js run class CoffeeMachine { diff --git a/1-js/10-error-handling/2-custom-errors/article.md b/1-js/10-error-handling/2-custom-errors/article.md index ff2e4c529..918289319 100644 --- a/1-js/10-error-handling/2-custom-errors/article.md +++ b/1-js/10-error-handling/2-custom-errors/article.md @@ -21,9 +21,9 @@ Internally, we'll use `JSON.parse`. If it receives malformed `json`, then it thr Our function `readUser(json)` will not only read JSON, but check ("validate") the data. If there are no required fields, or the format is wrong, then that's an error. And that's not a `SyntaxError`, because the data is syntactically correct, but another kind of error. We'll call it `ValidationError` and create a class for it. An error of that kind should also carry the information about the offending field. -Our `ValidationError` class should inherit from the built-in `Error` class. +Our `ValidationError` class should inherit from the `Error` class. -That class is built-in, but here's its approximate code so we can understand what we're extending: +The `Error` class is built-in, but here's its approximate code so we can understand what we're extending: ```js // The "pseudocode" for the built-in Error class defined by JavaScript itself @@ -117,15 +117,15 @@ We could also look at `err.name`, like this: // instead of (err instanceof SyntaxError) } else if (err.name == "SyntaxError") { // (*) // ... -``` +``` The `instanceof` version is much better, because in the future we are going to extend `ValidationError`, make subtypes of it, like `PropertyRequiredError`. And `instanceof` check will continue to work for new inheriting classes. So that's future-proof. -Also it's important that if `catch` meets an unknown error, then it rethrows it in the line `(**)`. The `catch` block only knows how to handle validation and syntax errors, other kinds (due to a typo in the code or other unknown ones) should fall through. +Also it's important that if `catch` meets an unknown error, then it rethrows it in the line `(**)`. The `catch` block only knows how to handle validation and syntax errors, other kinds (caused by a typo in the code or other unknown reasons) should fall through. ## Further inheritance -The `ValidationError` class is very generic. Many things may go wrong. The property may be absent or it may be in a wrong format (like a string value for `age`). Let's make a more concrete class `PropertyRequiredError`, exactly for absent properties. It will carry additional information about the property that's missing. +The `ValidationError` class is very generic. Many things may go wrong. The property may be absent or it may be in a wrong format (like a string value for `age` instead of a number). Let's make a more concrete class `PropertyRequiredError`, exactly for absent properties. It will carry additional information about the property that's missing. ```js run class ValidationError extends Error { diff --git a/1-js/11-async/01-callbacks/article.md b/1-js/11-async/01-callbacks/article.md index 344d92b74..8f9189ae3 100644 --- a/1-js/11-async/01-callbacks/article.md +++ b/1-js/11-async/01-callbacks/article.md @@ -28,7 +28,7 @@ function loadScript(src) { } ``` -It appends to the document the new, dynamically created, tag ` ``` -If we really need to make a window-level global variable, we can explicitly assign it to `window` and access as `window.user`. But that's an exception requiring a good reason. +```smart +In the browser, we can make a variable window-level global by explicitly assigning it to a `window` property, e.g. `window.user = "John"`. + +Then all scripts will see it, both with `type="module"` and without it. + +That said, making such global variables is frowned upon. Please try to avoid them. +``` ### A module code is evaluated only the first time when imported -If the same module is imported into multiple other places, its code is executed only the first time, then exports are given to all importers. +If the same module is imported into multiple other modules, its code is executed only once, upon the first import. Then its exports are given to all further importers. + +The one-time evaluation has important consequences, that we should be aware of. -That has important consequences. Let's look at them using examples: +Let's see a couple of examples. First, if executing a module code brings side-effects, like showing a message, then importing it multiple times will trigger it only once -- the first time: @@ -133,9 +146,11 @@ import `./alert.js`; // Module is evaluated! import `./alert.js`; // (shows nothing) ``` -In practice, top-level module code is mostly used for initialization, creation of internal data structures, and if we want something to be reusable -- export it. +The second import shows nothing, because the module has already been evaluated. -Now, a more advanced example. +There's a rule: top-level module code should be used for initialization, creation of module-specific internal data structures. If we need to make something callable multiple times - we should export it as a function, like we did with `sayHi` above. + +Now, let's consider a deeper example. Let's say, a module exports an object: @@ -160,54 +175,67 @@ import {admin} from './admin.js'; alert(admin.name); // Pete *!* -// Both 1.js and 2.js imported the same object +// Both 1.js and 2.js reference the same admin object // Changes made in 1.js are visible in 2.js */!* ``` -So, let's reiterate -- the module is executed only once. Exports are generated, and then they are shared between importers, so if something changes the `admin` object, other modules will see that. +As you can see, when `1.js` changes the `name` property in the imported `admin`, then `2.js` can see the new `admin.name`. + +That's exactly because the module is executed only once. Exports are generated, and then they are shared between importers, so if something changes the `admin` object, other modules will see that. -Such behavior allows us to *configure* modules on first import. We can setup its properties once, and then in further imports it's ready. +**Such behavior is actually very convenient, because it allows us to *configure* modules.** -For instance, the `admin.js` module may provide certain functionality, but expect the credentials to come into the `admin` object from outside: +In other words, a module can provide a generic functionality that needs a setup. E.g. authentication needs credentials. Then it can export a configuration object expecting the outer code to assign to it. + +Here's the classical pattern: +1. A module exports some means of configuration, e.g. a configuration object. +2. On the first import we initialize it, write to its properties. The top-level application script may do that. +3. Further imports use the module. + +For instance, the `admin.js` module may provide certain functionality (e.g. authentication), but expect the credentials to come into the `config` object from outside: ```js // 📁 admin.js -export let admin = { }; +export let config = { }; export function sayHi() { - alert(`Ready to serve, ${admin.name}!`); + alert(`Ready to serve, ${config.user}!`); } ``` -In `init.js`, the first script of our app, we set `admin.name`. Then everyone will see it, including calls made from inside `admin.js` itself: +Here, `admin.js` exports the `config` object (initially empty, but may have default properties too). + +Then in `init.js`, the first script of our app, we import `config` from it and set `config.user`: ```js // 📁 init.js -import {admin} from './admin.js'; -admin.name = "Pete"; +import {config} from './admin.js'; +config.user = "Pete"; ``` -Another module can also see `admin.name`: +...Now the module `admin.js` is configured. -```js -// 📁 other.js -import {admin, sayHi} from './admin.js'; +Further importers can call it, and it correctly shows the current user: -alert(admin.name); // *!*Pete*/!* +```js +// 📁 another.js +import {sayHi} from './admin.js'; sayHi(); // Ready to serve, *!*Pete*/!*! ``` + ### import.meta The object `import.meta` contains the information about the current module. -Its content depends on the environment. In the browser, it contains the url of the script, or a current webpage url if inside HTML: +Its content depends on the environment. In the browser, it contains the URL of the script, or a current webpage URL if inside HTML: ```html run height=0 ``` diff --git a/1-js/99-js-misc/04-reference-type/article.md b/1-js/99-js-misc/04-reference-type/article.md index 227253436..1ec378059 100644 --- a/1-js/99-js-misc/04-reference-type/article.md +++ b/1-js/99-js-misc/04-reference-type/article.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ ```warn header="In-depth language feature" This article covers an advanced topic, to understand certain edge-cases better. -It's not important. Many experienced developers live fine without knowing it. Read on if you're want to know how things work under the hood. +It's not important. Many experienced developers live fine without knowing it. Read on if you want to know how things work under the hood. ``` A dynamically evaluated method call can lose `this`. diff --git a/2-ui/3-event-details/6-pointer-events/article.md b/2-ui/3-event-details/6-pointer-events/article.md index 3e751a4af..4b58f3ffc 100644 --- a/2-ui/3-event-details/6-pointer-events/article.md +++ b/2-ui/3-event-details/6-pointer-events/article.md @@ -9,16 +9,16 @@ Let's make a small overview, so that you understand the general picture and the - Long ago, in the past, there were only mouse events. Then touch devices became widespread, phones and tablets in particular. For the existing scripts to work, they generated (and still generate) mouse events. For instance, tapping a touchscreen generates `mousedown`. So touch devices worked well with web pages. - + But touch devices have more capabilities than a mouse. For example, it's possible to touch multiple points at once ("multi-touch"). Although, mouse events don't have necessary properties to handle such multi-touches. - So touch events were introduced, such as `touchstart`, `touchend`, `touchmove`, that have touch-specific properties (we don't cover them in detail here, because pointer events are even better). - Still, it wasn't enough, as there are many other devices, such as pens, that have their own features. Also, writing code that listens for both touch and mouse events was cumbersome. + Still, it wasn't enough, as there are many other devices, such as pens, that have their own features. Also, writing code that listens for both touch and mouse events was cumbersome. - To solve these issues, the new standard Pointer Events was introduced. It provides a single set of events for all kinds of pointing devices. -As of now, [Pointer Events Level 2](https://www.w3.org/TR/pointerevents2/) specification is supported in all major browsers, while the newer [Pointer Events Level 3](https://w3c.github.io/pointerevents/) is in the works and is mostly compartible with Pointer Events level 2. +As of now, [Pointer Events Level 2](https://www.w3.org/TR/pointerevents2/) specification is supported in all major browsers, while the newer [Pointer Events Level 3](https://w3c.github.io/pointerevents/) is in the works and is mostly compatible with Pointer Events level 2. Unless you develop for old browsers, such as Internet Explorer 10, or for Safari 12 or below, there's no point in using mouse or touch events any more -- we can switch to pointer events. @@ -43,12 +43,12 @@ Pointer events are named similarly to mouse events: | `gotpointercapture` | - | | `lostpointercapture` | - | -As we can see, for every `mouse`, there's a `pointer` that plays a similar role. Also there are 3 additional pointer events that don't have a corresponding `mouse...` counterpart, we'll explain them soon. +As we can see, for every `mouse`, there's a `pointer` that plays a similar role. Also there are 3 additional pointer events that don't have a corresponding `mouse...` counterpart, we'll explain them soon. ```smart header="Replacing `mouse` with `pointer` in our code" We can replace `mouse` events with `pointer` in our code and expect things to continue working fine with mouse. -The support for touch devices will also "magically" improve. Although, we may need to add `touch-action: none` in some places in CSS. We'll cover it below in the section about `pointercancel`. +The support for touch devices will also "magically" improve. Although, we may need to add `touch-action: none` in some places in CSS. We'll cover it below in the section about `pointercancel`. ``` ## Pointer event properties @@ -56,16 +56,16 @@ The support for touch devices will also "magically" improve. Although, we may ne Pointer events have the same properties as mouse events, such as `clientX/Y`, `target`, etc., plus some others: - `pointerId` - the unique identifier of the pointer causing the event. - + Browser-generated. Allows us to handle multiple pointers, such as a touchscreen with stylus and multi-touch (examples will follow). -- `pointerType` - the pointing device type. Must be a string, one of: "mouse", "pen" or "touch". +- `pointerType` - the pointing device type. Must be a string, one of: "mouse", "pen" or "touch". We can use this property to react differently on various pointer types. - `isPrimary` - is `true` for the primary pointer (the first finger in multi-touch). Some pointer devices measure contact area and pressure, e.g. for a finger on the touchscreen, there are additional properties for that: -- `width` - the width of the area where the pointer (e.g. a finger) touches the device. Where unsupported, e.g. for a mouse, it's always `1`. +- `width` - the width of the area where the pointer (e.g. a finger) touches the device. Where unsupported, e.g. for a mouse, it's always `1`. - `height` - the height of the area where the pointer touches the device. Where unsupported, it's always `1`. - `pressure` - the pressure of the pointer tip, in range from 0 to 1. For devices that don't support pressure must be either `0.5` (pressed) or `0`. - `tangentialPressure` - the normalized tangential pressure. @@ -102,11 +102,11 @@ Please note: you must be using a touchscreen device, such as a phone or a tablet ## Event: pointercancel -The `pointercancel` event fires when there's an ongoing pointer interaction, and then something happens that causes it to be aborted, so that no more pointer events are generated. +The `pointercancel` event fires when there's an ongoing pointer interaction, and then something happens that causes it to be aborted, so that no more pointer events are generated. -Such causes are: +Such causes are: - The pointer device hardware was physically disabled. -- The device orientation changed (tablet rotated). +- The device orientation changed (tablet rotated). - The browser decided to handle the interaction on its own, considering it a mouse gesture or zoom-and-pan action or something else. We'll demonstrate `pointercancel` on a practical example to see how it affects us. @@ -126,7 +126,7 @@ Here is the flow of user actions and the corresponding events: So the issue is that the browser "hijacks" the interaction: `pointercancel` fires in the beginning of the "drag-and-drop" process, and no more `pointermove` events are generated. ```online -Here's the drag'n'drop demo with loggin of pointer events (only `up/down`, `move` and `cancel`) in the `textarea`: +Here's the drag'n'drop demo with loggin of pointer events (only `up/down`, `move` and `cancel`) in the `textarea`: [iframe src="ball" height=240 edit] ``` @@ -141,7 +141,7 @@ We need to do two things: - We can do this by setting `ball.ondragstart = () => false`, just as described in the article . - That works well for mouse events. 2. For touch devices, there are other touch-related browser actions (besides drag'n'drop). To avoid problems with them too: - - Prevent them by setting `#ball { touch-action: none }` in CSS. + - Prevent them by setting `#ball { touch-action: none }` in CSS. - Then our code will start working on touch devices. After we do that, the events will work as intended, the browser won't hijack the process and doesn't emit `pointercancel`. @@ -163,7 +163,7 @@ Pointer capturing is a special feature of pointer events. The idea is very simple, but may seem quite odd at first, as nothing like that exists for any other event type. The main method is: -- `elem.setPointerCapture(pointerId)` - binds events with the given `pointerId` to `elem`. After the call all pointer events with the same `pointerId` will have `elem` as the target (as if happened on `elem`), no matter where in document they really happened. +- `elem.setPointerCapture(pointerId)` -- binds events with the given `pointerId` to `elem`. After the call all pointer events with the same `pointerId` will have `elem` as the target (as if happened on `elem`), no matter where in document they really happened. In other words, `elem.setPointerCapture(pointerId)` retargets all subsequent events with the given `pointerId` to `elem`. @@ -172,29 +172,43 @@ The binding is removed: - automatically when `elem` is removed from the document, - when `elem.releasePointerCapture(pointerId)` is called. +Now what is it good for? It's time to see a real-life example. + **Pointer capturing can be used to simplify drag'n'drop kind of interactions.** -As an example, let's recall how one can implement a custom slider, described in the . +Let's recall how one can implement a custom slider, described in the . + +We can make a `slider` element to represent the strip and the "runner" (`thumb`) inside it: + +```html +
+
+
+``` + +With styles, it looks like this: + +[iframe src="slider-html" height=40 edit] -We make a slider element with the strip and the "runner" (`thumb`) inside it. +

-Then it works like this: +And here's the working logic, as it was described, after replacing mouse events with similar pointer events: -1. The user presses on the slider `thumb` - `pointerdown` triggers. -2. Then they move the pointer - `pointermove` triggers, and we move the `thumb` along. - - ...As the pointer moves, it may leave the slider `thumb`: go above or below it. The `thumb` should move strictly horizontally, remaining aligned with the pointer. +1. The user presses on the slider `thumb` -- `pointerdown` triggers. +2. Then they move the pointer -- `pointermove` triggers, and our code moves the `thumb` element along. + - ...As the pointer moves, it may leave the slider `thumb` element, go above or below it. The `thumb` should move strictly horizontally, remaining aligned with the pointer. -So, to track all pointer movements, including when it goes above/below the `thumb`, we had to assign `pointermove` event handler on the whole `document`. +In the mouse event based solution, to track all pointer movements, including when it goes above/below the `thumb`, we had to assign `mousemove` event handler on the whole `document`. -That solution looks a bit "dirty". One of the problems is that pointer movements around the document may cause side effects, trigger other event handlers, totally not related to the slider. +That's not a cleanest solution, though. One of the problems is that when a user moves the pointer around the document, it may trigger event handlers (such as `mouseover`) on some other elements, invoke totally unrelated UI functionality, and we don't want that. -Pointer capturing provides a means to bind `pointermove` to `thumb` and avoid any such problems: +This is the place where `setPointerCapture` comes into play. - We can call `thumb.setPointerCapture(event.pointerId)` in `pointerdown` handler, -- Then future pointer events until `pointerup/cancel` will be retargeted to `thumb`. +- Then future pointer events until `pointerup/cancel` will be retargeted to `thumb`. - When `pointerup` happens (dragging complete), the binding is removed automatically, we don't need to care about it. -So, even if the user moves the pointer around the whole document, events handlers will be called on `thumb`. Besides, coordinate properties of the event objects, such as `clientX/clientY` will still be correct - the capturing only affects `target/currentTarget`. +So, even if the user moves the pointer around the whole document, events handlers will be called on `thumb`. Nevertheless, coordinate properties of the event objects, such as `clientX/clientY` will still be correct - the capturing only affects `target/currentTarget`. Here's the essential code: @@ -202,15 +216,23 @@ Here's the essential code: thumb.onpointerdown = function(event) { // retarget all pointer events (until pointerup) to thumb thumb.setPointerCapture(event.pointerId); -}; -thumb.onpointermove = function(event) { - // moving the slider: listen on the thumb, as all pointer events are retargeted to it - let newLeft = event.clientX - slider.getBoundingClientRect().left; - thumb.style.left = newLeft + 'px'; + // start tracking pointer moves + thumb.onpointermove = function(event) { + // moving the slider: listen on the thumb, as all pointer events are retargeted to it + let newLeft = event.clientX - slider.getBoundingClientRect().left; + thumb.style.left = newLeft + 'px'; + }; + + // on pointer up finish tracking pointer moves + thumb.onpointerup = function(event) { + thumb.onpointermove = null; + thumb.onpointerup = null; + // ...also process the "drag end" if needed + }; }; -// note: no need to call thumb.releasePointerCapture, +// note: no need to call thumb.releasePointerCapture, // it happens on pointerup automatically ``` @@ -218,15 +240,27 @@ thumb.onpointermove = function(event) { The full demo: [iframe src="slider" height=100 edit] + +

+ +In the demo, there's also an additional element with `onmouseover` handler showing the current date. + +Please note: while you're dragging the thumb, you may hover over this element, and its handler *does not* trigger. + +So the dragging is now free of side effects, thanks to `setPointerCapture`. ``` + + At the end, pointer capturing gives us two benefits: 1. The code becomes cleaner as we don't need to add/remove handlers on the whole `document` any more. The binding is released automatically. -2. If there are any `pointermove` handlers in the document, they won't be accidentally triggered by the pointer while the user is dragging the slider. +2. If there are other pointer event handlers in the document, they won't be accidentally triggered by the pointer while the user is dragging the slider. ### Pointer capturing events -There are two associated pointer events: +There's one more thing to mention here, for the sake of completeness. + +There are two events associated with pointer capturing: - `gotpointercapture` fires when an element uses `setPointerCapture` to enable capturing. - `lostpointercapture` fires when the capture is released: either explicitly with `releasePointerCapture` call, or automatically on `pointerup`/`pointercancel`. diff --git a/2-ui/3-event-details/6-pointer-events/slider-html.view/index.html b/2-ui/3-event-details/6-pointer-events/slider-html.view/index.html new file mode 100644 index 000000000..781016f52 --- /dev/null +++ b/2-ui/3-event-details/6-pointer-events/slider-html.view/index.html @@ -0,0 +1,6 @@ + + + +
+
+
diff --git a/2-ui/3-event-details/6-pointer-events/slider-html.view/style.css b/2-ui/3-event-details/6-pointer-events/slider-html.view/style.css new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9b3d3b82d --- /dev/null +++ b/2-ui/3-event-details/6-pointer-events/slider-html.view/style.css @@ -0,0 +1,19 @@ +.slider { + border-radius: 5px; + background: #E0E0E0; + background: linear-gradient(left top, #E0E0E0, #EEEEEE); + width: 310px; + height: 15px; + margin: 5px; +} + +.thumb { + width: 10px; + height: 25px; + border-radius: 3px; + position: relative; + left: 10px; + top: -5px; + background: blue; + cursor: pointer; +} diff --git a/2-ui/3-event-details/6-pointer-events/slider.view/index.html b/2-ui/3-event-details/6-pointer-events/slider.view/index.html index 2c2a69ec7..b29e646a1 100644 --- a/2-ui/3-event-details/6-pointer-events/slider.view/index.html +++ b/2-ui/3-event-details/6-pointer-events/slider.view/index.html @@ -5,22 +5,33 @@
+

Mouse over here to see the date

+ diff --git a/2-ui/3-event-details/6-pointer-events/slider.view/style.css b/2-ui/3-event-details/6-pointer-events/slider.view/style.css index 9b3d3b82d..a84cd5e7e 100644 --- a/2-ui/3-event-details/6-pointer-events/slider.view/style.css +++ b/2-ui/3-event-details/6-pointer-events/slider.view/style.css @@ -8,6 +8,7 @@ } .thumb { + touch-action: none; width: 10px; height: 25px; border-radius: 3px; diff --git a/2-ui/3-event-details/7-keyboard-events/article.md b/2-ui/3-event-details/7-keyboard-events/article.md index 54bde42b4..51c1618f6 100644 --- a/2-ui/3-event-details/7-keyboard-events/article.md +++ b/2-ui/3-event-details/7-keyboard-events/article.md @@ -139,22 +139,25 @@ For instance, the `` below expects a phone number, so it does not accept ```html autorun height=60 run ``` -Please note that special keys, such as `key:Backspace`, `key:Left`, `key:Right`, `key:Ctrl+V`, do not work in the input. That's a side-effect of the strict filter `checkPhoneKey`. +The `onkeydown` handler here uses `checkPhoneKey` to check for the key pressed. If it's valid (from `0..9` or one of `+-()`), then it returns `true`, otherwise `false`. -Let's relax it a little bit: +As we know, the `false` value returned from the event handler, assigned using a DOM property or an attribute, such as above, prevents the default action, so nothing appears in the `` for keys that don't pass the test. (The `true` value returned doesn't affect anything, only returning `false` matters) +Please note that special keys, such as `key:Backspace`, `key:Left`, `key:Right`, do not work in the input. That's a side-effect of the strict filter `checkPhoneKey`. These keys make it return `false`. + +Let's relax the filter a little bit by allowing arrow keys `key:Left`, `key:Right` and `key:Delete`, `key:Backspace`: ```html autorun height=60 run @@ -162,7 +165,9 @@ function checkPhoneKey(key) { Now arrows and deletion works well. -...But we still can enter anything by using a mouse and right-click + Paste. So the filter is not 100% reliable. We can just let it be like that, because most of time it works. Or an alternative approach would be to track the `input` event -- it triggers after any modification. There we can check the new value and highlight/modify it when it's invalid. +Even though we have the key filter, one still can enter anything using a mouse and right-click + Paste. Mobile devices provide other means to enter values. So the filter is not 100% reliable. + +The alternative approach would be to track the `oninput` event -- it triggers *after* any modification. There we can check the new `input.value` and modify it/highlight the `` when it's invalid. Or we can use both event handlers together. ## Legacy diff --git a/2-ui/4-forms-controls/2-focus-blur/4-edit-td-click/task.md b/2-ui/4-forms-controls/2-focus-blur/4-edit-td-click/task.md index 2cccea020..378bd1f54 100644 --- a/2-ui/4-forms-controls/2-focus-blur/4-edit-td-click/task.md +++ b/2-ui/4-forms-controls/2-focus-blur/4-edit-td-click/task.md @@ -6,7 +6,7 @@ importance: 5 Make table cells editable on click. -- On click -- the cell should became "editable" (textarea appears inside), we can change HTML. There should be no resize, all geometry should remain the same. +- On click -- the cell should become "editable" (textarea appears inside), we can change HTML. There should be no resize, all geometry should remain the same. - Buttons OK and CANCEL appear below the cell to finish/cancel the editing. - Only one cell may be editable at a moment. While a `` is in "edit mode", clicks on other cells are ignored. - The table may have many cells. Use event delegation. diff --git a/2-ui/4-forms-controls/2-focus-blur/5-keyboard-mouse/task.md b/2-ui/4-forms-controls/2-focus-blur/5-keyboard-mouse/task.md index fc48c21ff..644d814d9 100644 --- a/2-ui/4-forms-controls/2-focus-blur/5-keyboard-mouse/task.md +++ b/2-ui/4-forms-controls/2-focus-blur/5-keyboard-mouse/task.md @@ -9,4 +9,5 @@ Focus on the mouse. Then use arrow keys to move it: [demo src="solution"] P.S. Don't put event handlers anywhere except the `#mouse` element. + P.P.S. Don't modify HTML/CSS, the approach should be generic and work with any element. diff --git a/2-ui/4-forms-controls/2-focus-blur/article.md b/2-ui/4-forms-controls/2-focus-blur/article.md index d4348d25b..b866a5e2b 100644 --- a/2-ui/4-forms-controls/2-focus-blur/article.md +++ b/2-ui/4-forms-controls/2-focus-blur/article.md @@ -104,7 +104,7 @@ The best recipe is to be careful when using these events. If we want to track us ``` ## Allow focusing on any element: tabindex -By default many elements do not support focusing. +By default, many elements do not support focusing. The list varies a bit between browsers, but one thing is always correct: `focus/blur` support is guaranteed for elements that a visitor can interact with: `