diff --git a/frontend/dockerfile/dockerfile_test.go b/frontend/dockerfile/dockerfile_test.go
index ce91d8166c257..00741ac5133da 100644
--- a/frontend/dockerfile/dockerfile_test.go
+++ b/frontend/dockerfile/dockerfile_test.go
@@ -37,6 +37,41 @@ import (
 	"github.com/stretchr/testify/require"
 )
 
+var opts []integration.TestOpt
+
+type frontend interface {
+	Solve(context.Context, *client.Client, client.SolveOpt, chan *client.SolveStatus) (*client.SolveResponse, error)
+	DFCmdArgs(string, string) (string, string)
+	RequiresBuildctl(t *testing.T)
+}
+
+func init() {
+	frontends := map[string]interface{}{}
+
+	opts = []integration.TestOpt{
+		integration.WithMirroredImages(integration.OfficialImages("busybox:latest")),
+		integration.WithMirroredImages(map[string]string{
+			"tonistiigi/copy:v0.1.4": "docker.io/" + dockerfile2llb.DefaultCopyImage,
+		}),
+		integration.WithMatrix("frontend", frontends),
+	}
+
+	if os.Getenv("FRONTEND_BUILTIN_ONLY") == "1" {
+		frontends["builtin"] = &builtinFrontend{}
+	} else if os.Getenv("FRONTEND_CLIENT_ONLY") == "1" {
+		frontends["client"] = &clientFrontend{}
+	} else if gw := os.Getenv("FRONTEND_GATEWAY_ONLY"); gw != "" {
+		name := "buildkit_test/" + identity.NewID() + ":latest"
+		opts = append(opts, integration.WithMirroredImages(map[string]string{
+			name: gw,
+		}))
+		frontends["gateway"] = &gatewayFrontend{gw: name}
+	} else {
+		frontends["builtin"] = &builtinFrontend{}
+		frontends["client"] = &clientFrontend{}
+	}
+}
+
 func TestIntegration(t *testing.T) {
 	integration.Run(t, []integration.Test{
 		testNoSnapshotLeak,
@@ -77,16 +112,12 @@ func TestIntegration(t *testing.T) {
 		testExportMultiPlatform,
 		testQuotedMetaArgs,
 		testIgnoreEntrypoint,
-	},
-		integration.WithMirroredImages(integration.OfficialImages("busybox:latest")),
-		integration.WithMirroredImages(map[string]string{
-			"tonistiigi/copy:v0.1.4": "docker.io/" + dockerfile2llb.DefaultCopyImage,
-		}),
-	)
+	}, opts...)
 }
 
 func testIgnoreEntrypoint(t *testing.T, sb integration.Sandbox) {
 	t.Parallel()
+	f := getFrontend(t, sb)
 
 	dockerfile := []byte(`
 FROM busybox
@@ -104,8 +135,7 @@ RUN ["ls"]
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 	defer c.Close()
 
-	_, err = c.Solve(context.TODO(), nil, client.SolveOpt{
-		Frontend: "dockerfile.v0",
+	_, err = f.Solve(context.TODO(), c, client.SolveOpt{
 		LocalDirs: map[string]string{
 			builder.LocalNameDockerfile: dir,
 			builder.LocalNameContext:    dir,
@@ -116,6 +146,7 @@ RUN ["ls"]
 
 func testQuotedMetaArgs(t *testing.T, sb integration.Sandbox) {
 	t.Parallel()
+	f := getFrontend(t, sb)
 
 	dockerfile := []byte(`
 ARG a1="box"
@@ -142,8 +173,7 @@ COPY --from=build /out .
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 	defer os.RemoveAll(destDir)
 
-	_, err = c.Solve(context.TODO(), nil, client.SolveOpt{
-		Frontend: "dockerfile.v0",
+	_, err = f.Solve(context.TODO(), c, client.SolveOpt{
 		LocalDirs: map[string]string{
 			builder.LocalNameDockerfile: dir,
 			builder.LocalNameContext:    dir,
@@ -160,6 +190,7 @@ COPY --from=build /out .
 
 func testExportMultiPlatform(t *testing.T, sb integration.Sandbox) {
 	t.Parallel()
+	f := getFrontend(t, sb)
 
 	dockerfile := []byte(`
 FROM scratch
@@ -187,8 +218,7 @@ COPY arch-$TARGETARCH whoami
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 	defer os.RemoveAll(destDir)
 
-	_, err = c.Solve(context.TODO(), nil, client.SolveOpt{
-		Frontend: "dockerfile.v0",
+	_, err = f.Solve(context.TODO(), c, client.SolveOpt{
 		LocalDirs: map[string]string{
 			builder.LocalNameDockerfile: dir,
 			builder.LocalNameContext:    dir,
@@ -223,8 +253,7 @@ COPY arch-$TARGETARCH whoami
 	outW, err := os.Create(out)
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 
-	_, err = c.Solve(context.TODO(), nil, client.SolveOpt{
-		Frontend: "dockerfile.v0",
+	_, err = f.Solve(context.TODO(), c, client.SolveOpt{
 		LocalDirs: map[string]string{
 			builder.LocalNameDockerfile: dir,
 			builder.LocalNameContext:    dir,
@@ -294,6 +323,7 @@ COPY arch-$TARGETARCH whoami
 // tonistiigi/fsutil#46
 func testContextChangeDirToFile(t *testing.T, sb integration.Sandbox) {
 	t.Parallel()
+	f := getFrontend(t, sb)
 
 	dockerfile := []byte(`
 FROM scratch
@@ -312,8 +342,7 @@ COPY foo /
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 	defer c.Close()
 
-	_, err = c.Solve(context.TODO(), nil, client.SolveOpt{
-		Frontend: "dockerfile.v0",
+	_, err = f.Solve(context.TODO(), c, client.SolveOpt{
 		LocalDirs: map[string]string{
 			builder.LocalNameDockerfile: dir,
 			builder.LocalNameContext:    dir,
@@ -332,8 +361,7 @@ COPY foo /
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 	defer os.RemoveAll(destDir)
 
-	_, err = c.Solve(context.TODO(), nil, client.SolveOpt{
-		Frontend:          "dockerfile.v0",
+	_, err = f.Solve(context.TODO(), c, client.SolveOpt{
 		Exporter:          client.ExporterLocal,
 		ExporterOutputDir: destDir,
 		LocalDirs: map[string]string{
@@ -350,6 +378,7 @@ COPY foo /
 
 func testNoSnapshotLeak(t *testing.T, sb integration.Sandbox) {
 	t.Parallel()
+	f := getFrontend(t, sb)
 
 	dockerfile := []byte(`
 FROM scratch
@@ -367,8 +396,7 @@ COPY foo /
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 	defer c.Close()
 
-	_, err = c.Solve(context.TODO(), nil, client.SolveOpt{
-		Frontend: "dockerfile.v0",
+	_, err = f.Solve(context.TODO(), c, client.SolveOpt{
 		LocalDirs: map[string]string{
 			builder.LocalNameDockerfile: dir,
 			builder.LocalNameContext:    dir,
@@ -379,8 +407,7 @@ COPY foo /
 	du, err := c.DiskUsage(context.TODO())
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 
-	_, err = c.Solve(context.TODO(), nil, client.SolveOpt{
-		Frontend: "dockerfile.v0",
+	_, err = f.Solve(context.TODO(), c, client.SolveOpt{
 		LocalDirs: map[string]string{
 			builder.LocalNameDockerfile: dir,
 			builder.LocalNameContext:    dir,
@@ -396,6 +423,7 @@ COPY foo /
 
 func testCopySymlinks(t *testing.T, sb integration.Sandbox) {
 	t.Parallel()
+	f := getFrontend(t, sb)
 
 	dockerfile := []byte(`
 FROM scratch
@@ -422,8 +450,7 @@ COPY sub/l* alllinks/
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 	defer c.Close()
 
-	_, err = c.Solve(context.TODO(), nil, client.SolveOpt{
-		Frontend: "dockerfile.v0",
+	_, err = f.Solve(context.TODO(), c, client.SolveOpt{
 		LocalDirs: map[string]string{
 			builder.LocalNameDockerfile: dir,
 			builder.LocalNameContext:    dir,
@@ -434,6 +461,7 @@ COPY sub/l* alllinks/
 
 func testHTTPDockerfile(t *testing.T, sb integration.Sandbox) {
 	t.Parallel()
+	f := getFrontend(t, sb)
 
 	dockerfile := []byte(`
 FROM busybox
@@ -467,8 +495,7 @@ COPY --from=0 /foo /foo
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 	defer c.Close()
 
-	_, err = c.Solve(context.TODO(), nil, client.SolveOpt{
-		Frontend: "dockerfile.v0",
+	_, err = f.Solve(context.TODO(), c, client.SolveOpt{
 		FrontendAttrs: map[string]string{
 			"context":  server.URL + "/df",
 			"filename": "mydockerfile", // this is bogus, any name should work
@@ -486,6 +513,7 @@ COPY --from=0 /foo /foo
 
 func testCmdShell(t *testing.T, sb integration.Sandbox) {
 	t.Parallel()
+	f := getFrontend(t, sb)
 
 	var cdAddress string
 	if cd, ok := sb.(interface {
@@ -512,8 +540,7 @@ CMD ["test"]
 	defer c.Close()
 
 	target := "docker.io/moby/cmdoverridetest:latest"
-	_, err = c.Solve(context.TODO(), nil, client.SolveOpt{
-		Frontend: "dockerfile.v0",
+	_, err = f.Solve(context.TODO(), c, client.SolveOpt{
 		Exporter: client.ExporterImage,
 		ExporterAttrs: map[string]string{
 			"name": target,
@@ -538,8 +565,7 @@ ENTRYPOINT my entrypoint
 	defer os.RemoveAll(dir)
 
 	target = "docker.io/moby/cmdoverridetest2:latest"
-	_, err = c.Solve(context.TODO(), nil, client.SolveOpt{
-		Frontend: "dockerfile.v0",
+	_, err = f.Solve(context.TODO(), c, client.SolveOpt{
 		Exporter: client.ExporterImage,
 		ExporterAttrs: map[string]string{
 			"name": target,
@@ -576,6 +602,7 @@ ENTRYPOINT my entrypoint
 
 func testPullScratch(t *testing.T, sb integration.Sandbox) {
 	t.Parallel()
+	f := getFrontend(t, sb)
 
 	var cdAddress string
 	if cd, ok := sb.(interface {
@@ -602,8 +629,7 @@ LABEL foo=bar
 	defer c.Close()
 
 	target := "docker.io/moby/testpullscratch:latest"
-	_, err = c.Solve(context.TODO(), nil, client.SolveOpt{
-		Frontend: "dockerfile.v0",
+	_, err = f.Solve(context.TODO(), c, client.SolveOpt{
 		Exporter: client.ExporterImage,
 		ExporterAttrs: map[string]string{
 			"name": target,
@@ -629,8 +655,7 @@ COPY foo .
 	defer os.RemoveAll(dir)
 
 	target = "docker.io/moby/testpullscratch2:latest"
-	_, err = c.Solve(context.TODO(), nil, client.SolveOpt{
-		Frontend: "dockerfile.v0",
+	_, err = f.Solve(context.TODO(), c, client.SolveOpt{
 		Exporter: client.ExporterImage,
 		ExporterAttrs: map[string]string{
 			"name": target,
@@ -698,6 +723,8 @@ COPY foo .
 
 func testGlobalArg(t *testing.T, sb integration.Sandbox) {
 	t.Parallel()
+	f := getFrontend(t, sb)
+
 	dockerfile := []byte(`
 ARG tag=nosuchtag
 FROM busybox:${tag}
@@ -713,8 +740,7 @@ FROM busybox:${tag}
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 	defer c.Close()
 
-	_, err = c.Solve(context.TODO(), nil, client.SolveOpt{
-		Frontend: "dockerfile.v0",
+	_, err = f.Solve(context.TODO(), c, client.SolveOpt{
 		FrontendAttrs: map[string]string{
 			"build-arg:tag": "latest",
 		},
@@ -728,6 +754,9 @@ FROM busybox:${tag}
 
 func testDockerfileDirs(t *testing.T, sb integration.Sandbox) {
 	t.Parallel()
+	f := getFrontend(t, sb)
+	f.RequiresBuildctl(t)
+
 	dockerfile := []byte(`
 	FROM busybox
 	COPY foo /foo2
@@ -745,7 +774,7 @@ func testDockerfileDirs(t *testing.T, sb integration.Sandbox) {
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 	defer os.RemoveAll(dir)
 
-	args, trace := dfCmdArgs(dir, dir)
+	args, trace := f.DFCmdArgs(dir, dir)
 	defer os.RemoveAll(trace)
 
 	cmd := sb.Cmd(args)
@@ -755,7 +784,7 @@ func testDockerfileDirs(t *testing.T, sb integration.Sandbox) {
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 
 	// relative urls
-	args, trace = dfCmdArgs(".", ".")
+	args, trace = f.DFCmdArgs(".", ".")
 	defer os.RemoveAll(trace)
 
 	cmd = sb.Cmd(args)
@@ -778,7 +807,7 @@ func testDockerfileDirs(t *testing.T, sb integration.Sandbox) {
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 	defer os.RemoveAll(dir2)
 
-	args, trace = dfCmdArgs(dir2, dir1)
+	args, trace = f.DFCmdArgs(dir2, dir1)
 	defer os.RemoveAll(trace)
 
 	cmd = sb.Cmd(args)
@@ -794,6 +823,8 @@ func testDockerfileDirs(t *testing.T, sb integration.Sandbox) {
 
 func testDockerfileInvalidCommand(t *testing.T, sb integration.Sandbox) {
 	t.Parallel()
+	f := getFrontend(t, sb)
+	f.RequiresBuildctl(t)
 	dockerfile := []byte(`
 	FROM busybox
 	RUN invalidcmd
@@ -805,7 +836,7 @@ func testDockerfileInvalidCommand(t *testing.T, sb integration.Sandbox) {
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 	defer os.RemoveAll(dir)
 
-	args, trace := dfCmdArgs(dir, dir)
+	args, trace := f.DFCmdArgs(dir, dir)
 	defer os.RemoveAll(trace)
 
 	cmd := sb.Cmd(args)
@@ -819,6 +850,8 @@ func testDockerfileInvalidCommand(t *testing.T, sb integration.Sandbox) {
 
 func testDockerfileADDFromURL(t *testing.T, sb integration.Sandbox) {
 	t.Parallel()
+	f := getFrontend(t, sb)
+	f.RequiresBuildctl(t)
 
 	modTime := time.Now().Add(-24 * time.Hour) // avoid falso positive with current time
 
@@ -850,7 +883,7 @@ ADD %s /dest/
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 	defer os.RemoveAll(dir)
 
-	args, trace := dfCmdArgs(dir, dir)
+	args, trace := f.DFCmdArgs(dir, dir)
 	defer os.RemoveAll(trace)
 
 	destDir, err := tmpdir()
@@ -877,7 +910,7 @@ ADD %s /dest/
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 	defer os.RemoveAll(dir)
 
-	args, trace = dfCmdArgs(dir, dir)
+	args, trace = f.DFCmdArgs(dir, dir)
 	defer os.RemoveAll(trace)
 
 	destDir, err = tmpdir()
@@ -900,6 +933,8 @@ ADD %s /dest/
 
 func testDockerfileAddArchive(t *testing.T, sb integration.Sandbox) {
 	t.Parallel()
+	f := getFrontend(t, sb)
+	f.RequiresBuildctl(t)
 
 	buf := bytes.NewBuffer(nil)
 	tw := tar.NewWriter(buf)
@@ -928,7 +963,7 @@ ADD t.tar /
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 	defer os.RemoveAll(dir)
 
-	args, trace := dfCmdArgs(dir, dir)
+	args, trace := f.DFCmdArgs(dir, dir)
 	defer os.RemoveAll(trace)
 
 	destDir, err := tmpdir()
@@ -962,7 +997,7 @@ ADD t.tar.gz /
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 	defer os.RemoveAll(dir)
 
-	args, trace = dfCmdArgs(dir, dir)
+	args, trace = f.DFCmdArgs(dir, dir)
 	defer os.RemoveAll(trace)
 
 	destDir, err = tmpdir()
@@ -989,7 +1024,7 @@ COPY t.tar.gz /
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 	defer os.RemoveAll(dir)
 
-	args, trace = dfCmdArgs(dir, dir)
+	args, trace = f.DFCmdArgs(dir, dir)
 	defer os.RemoveAll(trace)
 
 	destDir, err = tmpdir()
@@ -1025,7 +1060,7 @@ ADD %s /
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 	defer os.RemoveAll(dir)
 
-	args, trace = dfCmdArgs(dir, dir)
+	args, trace = f.DFCmdArgs(dir, dir)
 	defer os.RemoveAll(trace)
 
 	destDir, err = tmpdir()
@@ -1051,7 +1086,7 @@ ADD %s /newname.tar.gz
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 	defer os.RemoveAll(dir)
 
-	args, trace = dfCmdArgs(dir, dir)
+	args, trace = f.DFCmdArgs(dir, dir)
 	defer os.RemoveAll(trace)
 
 	destDir, err = tmpdir()
@@ -1068,6 +1103,8 @@ ADD %s /newname.tar.gz
 
 func testSymlinkDestination(t *testing.T, sb integration.Sandbox) {
 	t.Parallel()
+	f := getFrontend(t, sb)
+	f.RequiresBuildctl(t)
 
 	buf := bytes.NewBuffer(nil)
 	tw := tar.NewWriter(buf)
@@ -1096,7 +1133,7 @@ COPY foo /symlink/
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 	defer os.RemoveAll(dir)
 
-	args, trace := dfCmdArgs(dir, dir)
+	args, trace := f.DFCmdArgs(dir, dir)
 	defer os.RemoveAll(trace)
 
 	destDir, err := tmpdir()
@@ -1122,6 +1159,8 @@ func testDockerfileScratchConfig(t *testing.T, sb integration.Sandbox) {
 	}
 
 	t.Parallel()
+	f := getFrontend(t, sb)
+	f.RequiresBuildctl(t)
 	dockerfile := []byte(`
 FROM scratch
 ENV foo=bar
@@ -1133,7 +1172,7 @@ ENV foo=bar
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 	defer os.RemoveAll(dir)
 
-	args, trace := dfCmdArgs(dir, dir)
+	args, trace := f.DFCmdArgs(dir, dir)
 	defer os.RemoveAll(trace)
 
 	target := "example.com/moby/dockerfilescratch:test"
@@ -1183,6 +1222,7 @@ ENV foo=bar
 
 func testExposeExpansion(t *testing.T, sb integration.Sandbox) {
 	t.Parallel()
+	f := getFrontend(t, sb)
 
 	dockerfile := []byte(`
 FROM scratch
@@ -1202,8 +1242,7 @@ EXPOSE 5000
 	defer c.Close()
 
 	target := "example.com/moby/dockerfileexpansion:test"
-	_, err = c.Solve(context.TODO(), nil, client.SolveOpt{
-		Frontend: "dockerfile.v0",
+	_, err = f.Solve(context.TODO(), c, client.SolveOpt{
 		Exporter: client.ExporterImage,
 		ExporterAttrs: map[string]string{
 			"name": target,
@@ -1259,6 +1298,7 @@ EXPOSE 5000
 
 func testDockerignore(t *testing.T, sb integration.Sandbox) {
 	t.Parallel()
+	f := getFrontend(t, sb)
 
 	dockerfile := []byte(`
 FROM scratch
@@ -1291,8 +1331,7 @@ Dockerfile
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 	defer os.RemoveAll(destDir)
 
-	_, err = c.Solve(context.TODO(), nil, client.SolveOpt{
-		Frontend:          "dockerfile.v0",
+	_, err = f.Solve(context.TODO(), c, client.SolveOpt{
 		Exporter:          client.ExporterLocal,
 		ExporterOutputDir: destDir,
 		LocalDirs: map[string]string{
@@ -1329,6 +1368,7 @@ Dockerfile
 
 func testDockerignoreInvalid(t *testing.T, sb integration.Sandbox) {
 	t.Parallel()
+	f := getFrontend(t, sb)
 
 	dockerfile := []byte(`
 FROM scratch
@@ -1349,8 +1389,7 @@ COPY . .
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 	defer c.Close()
 
-	_, err = c.Solve(ctx, nil, client.SolveOpt{
-		Frontend: "dockerfile.v0",
+	_, err = f.Solve(ctx, c, client.SolveOpt{
 		LocalDirs: map[string]string{
 			builder.LocalNameDockerfile: dir,
 			builder.LocalNameContext:    dir,
@@ -1367,6 +1406,8 @@ COPY . .
 
 func testExportedHistory(t *testing.T, sb integration.Sandbox) {
 	t.Parallel()
+	f := getFrontend(t, sb)
+	f.RequiresBuildctl(t)
 
 	// using multi-stage to test that history is scoped to one stage
 	dockerfile := []byte(`
@@ -1387,7 +1428,7 @@ RUN ["ls"]
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 	defer os.RemoveAll(dir)
 
-	args, trace := dfCmdArgs(dir, dir)
+	args, trace := f.DFCmdArgs(dir, dir)
 	defer os.RemoveAll(trace)
 
 	target := "example.com/moby/dockerfilescratch:test"
@@ -1445,6 +1486,7 @@ func testUser(t *testing.T, sb integration.Sandbox) {
 	}
 
 	t.Parallel()
+	f := getFrontend(t, sb)
 
 	dockerfile := []byte(`
 FROM busybox AS base
@@ -1520,8 +1562,7 @@ USER nobody
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 	defer os.RemoveAll(destDir)
 
-	_, err = c.Solve(context.TODO(), nil, client.SolveOpt{
-		Frontend:          "dockerfile.v0",
+	_, err = f.Solve(context.TODO(), c, client.SolveOpt{
 		Exporter:          client.ExporterLocal,
 		ExporterOutputDir: destDir,
 		LocalDirs: map[string]string{
@@ -1541,8 +1582,7 @@ USER nobody
 
 	// test user in exported
 	target := "example.com/moby/dockerfileuser:test"
-	_, err = c.Solve(context.TODO(), nil, client.SolveOpt{
-		Frontend: "dockerfile.v0",
+	_, err = f.Solve(context.TODO(), c, client.SolveOpt{
 		Exporter: client.ExporterImage,
 		ExporterAttrs: map[string]string{
 			"name": target,
@@ -1587,6 +1627,7 @@ USER nobody
 
 func testCopyChown(t *testing.T, sb integration.Sandbox) {
 	t.Parallel()
+	f := getFrontend(t, sb)
 
 	dockerfile := []byte(`
 FROM busybox AS base
@@ -1616,8 +1657,7 @@ COPY --from=base /out /
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 	defer os.RemoveAll(destDir)
 
-	_, err = c.Solve(context.TODO(), nil, client.SolveOpt{
-		Frontend:          "dockerfile.v0",
+	_, err = f.Solve(context.TODO(), c, client.SolveOpt{
 		Exporter:          client.ExporterLocal,
 		ExporterOutputDir: destDir,
 		LocalDirs: map[string]string{
@@ -1638,6 +1678,7 @@ COPY --from=base /out /
 
 func testCopyOverrideFiles(t *testing.T, sb integration.Sandbox) {
 	t.Parallel()
+	f := getFrontend(t, sb)
 
 	dockerfile := []byte(`
 FROM scratch AS base
@@ -1668,8 +1709,7 @@ COPY files dest
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 	defer os.RemoveAll(destDir)
 
-	_, err = c.Solve(context.TODO(), nil, client.SolveOpt{
-		Frontend:          "dockerfile.v0",
+	_, err = f.Solve(context.TODO(), c, client.SolveOpt{
 		Exporter:          client.ExporterLocal,
 		ExporterOutputDir: destDir,
 		LocalDirs: map[string]string{
@@ -1690,6 +1730,7 @@ COPY files dest
 
 func testCopyVarSubstitution(t *testing.T, sb integration.Sandbox) {
 	t.Parallel()
+	f := getFrontend(t, sb)
 
 	dockerfile := []byte(`
 FROM scratch AS base
@@ -1713,8 +1754,7 @@ COPY $FOO baz
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 	defer os.RemoveAll(destDir)
 
-	_, err = c.Solve(context.TODO(), nil, client.SolveOpt{
-		Frontend:          "dockerfile.v0",
+	_, err = f.Solve(context.TODO(), c, client.SolveOpt{
 		Exporter:          client.ExporterLocal,
 		ExporterOutputDir: destDir,
 		LocalDirs: map[string]string{
@@ -1731,6 +1771,7 @@ COPY $FOO baz
 
 func testCopyWildcards(t *testing.T, sb integration.Sandbox) {
 	t.Parallel()
+	f := getFrontend(t, sb)
 
 	dockerfile := []byte(`
 FROM scratch AS base
@@ -1765,8 +1806,7 @@ COPY sub/dir1 subdest6
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 	defer os.RemoveAll(destDir)
 
-	_, err = c.Solve(context.TODO(), nil, client.SolveOpt{
-		Frontend:          "dockerfile.v0",
+	_, err = f.Solve(context.TODO(), c, client.SolveOpt{
 		Exporter:          client.ExporterLocal,
 		ExporterOutputDir: destDir,
 		LocalDirs: map[string]string{
@@ -1819,6 +1859,7 @@ COPY sub/dir1 subdest6
 
 func testDockerfileFromGit(t *testing.T, sb integration.Sandbox) {
 	t.Parallel()
+	f := getFrontend(t, sb)
 
 	gitDir, err := ioutil.TempDir("", "buildkit")
 	require.NoError(t, err)
@@ -1869,8 +1910,7 @@ COPY --from=build foo bar2
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 	defer c.Close()
 
-	_, err = c.Solve(context.TODO(), nil, client.SolveOpt{
-		Frontend: "dockerfile.v0",
+	_, err = f.Solve(context.TODO(), c, client.SolveOpt{
 		FrontendAttrs: map[string]string{
 			"context": server.URL + "/.git#first",
 		},
@@ -1892,8 +1932,7 @@ COPY --from=build foo bar2
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 	defer os.RemoveAll(destDir)
 
-	_, err = c.Solve(context.TODO(), nil, client.SolveOpt{
-		Frontend: "dockerfile.v0",
+	_, err = f.Solve(context.TODO(), c, client.SolveOpt{
 		FrontendAttrs: map[string]string{
 			"context": server.URL + "/.git",
 		},
@@ -1913,6 +1952,7 @@ COPY --from=build foo bar2
 
 func testDockerfileFromHTTP(t *testing.T, sb integration.Sandbox) {
 	t.Parallel()
+	f := getFrontend(t, sb)
 
 	buf := bytes.NewBuffer(nil)
 	w := tar.NewWriter(buf)
@@ -1955,8 +1995,7 @@ COPY foo bar
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 	defer c.Close()
 
-	_, err = c.Solve(context.TODO(), nil, client.SolveOpt{
-		Frontend: "dockerfile.v0",
+	_, err = f.Solve(context.TODO(), c, client.SolveOpt{
 		FrontendAttrs: map[string]string{
 			"context":  server.URL + "/myurl",
 			"filename": "mydockerfile",
@@ -1973,6 +2012,7 @@ COPY foo bar
 
 func testMultiStageImplicitFrom(t *testing.T, sb integration.Sandbox) {
 	t.Parallel()
+	f := getFrontend(t, sb)
 
 	dockerfile := []byte(`
 FROM scratch
@@ -1993,8 +2033,7 @@ COPY --from=busybox /etc/passwd test
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 	defer os.RemoveAll(destDir)
 
-	_, err = c.Solve(context.TODO(), nil, client.SolveOpt{
-		Frontend:          "dockerfile.v0",
+	_, err = f.Solve(context.TODO(), c, client.SolveOpt{
 		Exporter:          client.ExporterLocal,
 		ExporterOutputDir: destDir,
 		LocalDirs: map[string]string{
@@ -2028,8 +2067,7 @@ COPY --from=golang /usr/bin/go go
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 	defer os.RemoveAll(destDir)
 
-	_, err = c.Solve(context.TODO(), nil, client.SolveOpt{
-		Frontend:          "dockerfile.v0",
+	_, err = f.Solve(context.TODO(), c, client.SolveOpt{
 		Exporter:          client.ExporterLocal,
 		ExporterOutputDir: destDir,
 		LocalDirs: map[string]string{
@@ -2046,6 +2084,7 @@ COPY --from=golang /usr/bin/go go
 
 func testMultiStageCaseInsensitive(t *testing.T, sb integration.Sandbox) {
 	t.Parallel()
+	f := getFrontend(t, sb)
 
 	dockerfile := []byte(`
 FROM scratch AS STAge0
@@ -2070,8 +2109,7 @@ COPY --from=stage1 baz bax
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 	defer os.RemoveAll(destDir)
 
-	_, err = c.Solve(context.TODO(), nil, client.SolveOpt{
-		Frontend:          "dockerfile.v0",
+	_, err = f.Solve(context.TODO(), c, client.SolveOpt{
 		Exporter:          client.ExporterLocal,
 		ExporterOutputDir: destDir,
 		LocalDirs: map[string]string{
@@ -2091,6 +2129,7 @@ COPY --from=stage1 baz bax
 
 func testLabels(t *testing.T, sb integration.Sandbox) {
 	t.Parallel()
+	f := getFrontend(t, sb)
 
 	dockerfile := []byte(`
 FROM scratch
@@ -2111,8 +2150,7 @@ LABEL foo=bar
 	defer os.RemoveAll(destDir)
 
 	target := "example.com/moby/dockerfilelabels:test"
-	_, err = c.Solve(context.TODO(), nil, client.SolveOpt{
-		Frontend: "dockerfile.v0",
+	_, err = f.Solve(context.TODO(), c, client.SolveOpt{
 		FrontendAttrs: map[string]string{
 			"label:bar": "baz",
 		},
@@ -2166,6 +2204,7 @@ LABEL foo=bar
 
 func testCacheImportExport(t *testing.T, sb integration.Sandbox) {
 	t.Parallel()
+	f := getFrontend(t, sb)
 
 	registry, err := sb.NewRegistry()
 	if errors.Cause(err) == integration.ErrorRequirements {
@@ -2200,8 +2239,7 @@ COPY --from=base unique /
 
 	target := registry + "/buildkit/testexportdf:latest"
 
-	_, err = c.Solve(context.TODO(), nil, client.SolveOpt{
-		Frontend:          "dockerfile.v0",
+	_, err = f.Solve(context.TODO(), c, client.SolveOpt{
 		Exporter:          client.ExporterLocal,
 		ExporterOutputDir: destDir,
 		ExportCache:       target,
@@ -2228,8 +2266,7 @@ COPY --from=base unique /
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 	defer os.RemoveAll(destDir)
 
-	_, err = c.Solve(context.TODO(), nil, client.SolveOpt{
-		Frontend: "dockerfile.v0",
+	_, err = f.Solve(context.TODO(), c, client.SolveOpt{
 		FrontendAttrs: map[string]string{
 			"cache-from": target,
 		},
@@ -2257,6 +2294,7 @@ COPY --from=base unique /
 
 func testReproducibleIDs(t *testing.T, sb integration.Sandbox) {
 	t.Parallel()
+	f := getFrontend(t, sb)
 
 	dockerfile := []byte(`
 FROM busybox
@@ -2281,7 +2319,6 @@ RUN echo bar > bar
 
 	target := "example.com/moby/dockerfileids:test"
 	opt := client.SolveOpt{
-		Frontend:      "dockerfile.v0",
 		FrontendAttrs: map[string]string{},
 		Exporter:      client.ExporterImage,
 		ExporterAttrs: map[string]string{
@@ -2293,13 +2330,13 @@ RUN echo bar > bar
 		},
 	}
 
-	_, err = c.Solve(context.TODO(), nil, opt, nil)
+	_, err = f.Solve(context.TODO(), c, opt, nil)
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 
 	target2 := "example.com/moby/dockerfileids2:test"
 	opt.ExporterAttrs["name"] = target2
 
-	_, err = c.Solve(context.TODO(), nil, opt, nil)
+	_, err = f.Solve(context.TODO(), c, opt, nil)
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 
 	var cdAddress string
@@ -2336,6 +2373,7 @@ func testImportExportReproducibleIDs(t *testing.T, sb integration.Sandbox) {
 	}
 
 	t.Parallel()
+	f := getFrontend(t, sb)
 
 	registry, err := sb.NewRegistry()
 	if errors.Cause(err) == integration.ErrorRequirements {
@@ -2368,7 +2406,6 @@ RUN echo bar > bar
 	target := "example.com/moby/dockerfileexpids:test"
 	cacheTarget := registry + "/test/dockerfileexpids:cache"
 	opt := client.SolveOpt{
-		Frontend:      "dockerfile.v0",
 		FrontendAttrs: map[string]string{},
 		Exporter:      client.ExporterImage,
 		ExportCache:   cacheTarget,
@@ -2387,7 +2424,7 @@ RUN echo bar > bar
 
 	ctx := namespaces.WithNamespace(context.Background(), "buildkit")
 
-	_, err = c.Solve(context.TODO(), nil, opt, nil)
+	_, err = f.Solve(context.TODO(), c, opt, nil)
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 
 	img, err := ctd.ImageService().Get(ctx, target)
@@ -2406,7 +2443,7 @@ RUN echo bar > bar
 	opt.ExporterAttrs["name"] = target2
 	opt.FrontendAttrs["cache-from"] = cacheTarget
 
-	_, err = c.Solve(context.TODO(), nil, opt, nil)
+	_, err = f.Solve(context.TODO(), c, opt, nil)
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 
 	img2, err := ctd.ImageService().Get(ctx, target2)
@@ -2417,6 +2454,7 @@ RUN echo bar > bar
 
 func testNoCache(t *testing.T, sb integration.Sandbox) {
 	t.Parallel()
+	f := getFrontend(t, sb)
 
 	dockerfile := []byte(`
 FROM busybox AS s0
@@ -2442,7 +2480,6 @@ COPY --from=s1 unique2 /
 	defer os.RemoveAll(destDir)
 
 	opt := client.SolveOpt{
-		Frontend:          "dockerfile.v0",
 		FrontendAttrs:     map[string]string{},
 		Exporter:          client.ExporterLocal,
 		ExporterOutputDir: destDir,
@@ -2452,7 +2489,7 @@ COPY --from=s1 unique2 /
 		},
 	}
 
-	_, err = c.Solve(context.TODO(), nil, opt, nil)
+	_, err = f.Solve(context.TODO(), c, opt, nil)
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 
 	destDir2, err := ioutil.TempDir("", "buildkit")
@@ -2462,7 +2499,7 @@ COPY --from=s1 unique2 /
 	opt.FrontendAttrs["no-cache"] = ""
 	opt.ExporterOutputDir = destDir2
 
-	_, err = c.Solve(context.TODO(), nil, opt, nil)
+	_, err = f.Solve(context.TODO(), c, opt, nil)
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 
 	unique1Dir1, err := ioutil.ReadFile(filepath.Join(destDir, "unique"))
@@ -2487,7 +2524,7 @@ COPY --from=s1 unique2 /
 	opt.FrontendAttrs["no-cache"] = "s1"
 	opt.ExporterOutputDir = destDir3
 
-	_, err = c.Solve(context.TODO(), nil, opt, nil)
+	_, err = f.Solve(context.TODO(), c, opt, nil)
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 
 	unique1Dir3, err := ioutil.ReadFile(filepath.Join(destDir3, "unique"))
@@ -2502,6 +2539,7 @@ COPY --from=s1 unique2 /
 
 func testPlatformArgsImplicit(t *testing.T, sb integration.Sandbox) {
 	t.Parallel()
+	f := getFrontend(t, sb)
 
 	dockerfile := []byte(fmt.Sprintf(`
 FROM scratch AS build-%s
@@ -2527,7 +2565,6 @@ COPY foo2 bar2
 	defer os.RemoveAll(destDir)
 
 	opt := client.SolveOpt{
-		Frontend:          "dockerfile.v0",
 		Exporter:          client.ExporterLocal,
 		ExporterOutputDir: destDir,
 		LocalDirs: map[string]string{
@@ -2536,7 +2573,7 @@ COPY foo2 bar2
 		},
 	}
 
-	_, err = c.Solve(context.TODO(), nil, opt, nil)
+	_, err = f.Solve(context.TODO(), c, opt, nil)
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 
 	dt, err := ioutil.ReadFile(filepath.Join(destDir, "bar"))
@@ -2550,6 +2587,7 @@ COPY foo2 bar2
 
 func testPlatformArgsExplicit(t *testing.T, sb integration.Sandbox) {
 	t.Parallel()
+	f := getFrontend(t, sb)
 
 	dockerfile := []byte(`
 FROM --platform=$BUILDPLATFORM busybox AS build
@@ -2575,7 +2613,6 @@ COPY --from=build out .
 	defer os.RemoveAll(destDir)
 
 	opt := client.SolveOpt{
-		Frontend: "dockerfile.v0",
 		Exporter: client.ExporterLocal,
 		FrontendAttrs: map[string]string{
 			"platform":           "darwin/ppc64le",
@@ -2588,7 +2625,7 @@ COPY --from=build out .
 		},
 	}
 
-	_, err = c.Solve(context.TODO(), nil, opt, nil)
+	_, err = f.Solve(context.TODO(), c, opt, nil)
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 
 	dt, err := ioutil.ReadFile(filepath.Join(destDir, "platform"))
@@ -2602,6 +2639,7 @@ COPY --from=build out .
 
 func testBuiltinArgs(t *testing.T, sb integration.Sandbox) {
 	t.Parallel()
+	f := getFrontend(t, sb)
 
 	dockerfile := []byte(`
 FROM busybox AS build
@@ -2628,7 +2666,6 @@ COPY --from=build /out /
 	defer os.RemoveAll(destDir)
 
 	opt := client.SolveOpt{
-		Frontend: "dockerfile.v0",
 		FrontendAttrs: map[string]string{
 			"build-arg:FOO":        "foocontents",
 			"build-arg:http_proxy": "hpvalue",
@@ -2642,7 +2679,7 @@ COPY --from=build /out /
 		},
 	}
 
-	_, err = c.Solve(context.TODO(), nil, opt, nil)
+	_, err = f.Solve(context.TODO(), c, opt, nil)
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 
 	dt, err := ioutil.ReadFile(filepath.Join(destDir, "out"))
@@ -2655,7 +2692,6 @@ COPY --from=build /out /
 	defer os.RemoveAll(destDir)
 
 	opt = client.SolveOpt{
-		Frontend: "dockerfile.v0",
 		FrontendAttrs: map[string]string{
 			"build-arg:FOO":        "foocontents",
 			"build-arg:http_proxy": "hpvalue2",
@@ -2668,7 +2704,7 @@ COPY --from=build /out /
 		},
 	}
 
-	_, err = c.Solve(context.TODO(), nil, opt, nil)
+	_, err = f.Solve(context.TODO(), c, opt, nil)
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 
 	dt, err = ioutil.ReadFile(filepath.Join(destDir, "out"))
@@ -2681,7 +2717,6 @@ COPY --from=build /out /
 	defer os.RemoveAll(destDir)
 
 	opt = client.SolveOpt{
-		Frontend: "dockerfile.v0",
 		FrontendAttrs: map[string]string{
 			"build-arg:FOO":        "foocontents2",
 			"build-arg:http_proxy": "hpvalue2",
@@ -2694,7 +2729,7 @@ COPY --from=build /out /
 		},
 	}
 
-	_, err = c.Solve(context.TODO(), nil, opt, nil)
+	_, err = f.Solve(context.TODO(), c, opt, nil)
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 
 	dt, err = ioutil.ReadFile(filepath.Join(destDir, "out"))
@@ -2713,11 +2748,6 @@ func tmpdir(appliers ...fstest.Applier) (string, error) {
 	return tmpdir, nil
 }
 
-func dfCmdArgs(ctx, dockerfile string) (string, string) {
-	traceFile := filepath.Join(os.TempDir(), "trace"+identity.NewID())
-	return fmt.Sprintf("build --progress=plain --frontend dockerfile.v0 --local context=%s --local dockerfile=%s --trace=%s", ctx, dockerfile, traceFile), traceFile
-}
-
 func runShell(dir string, cmds ...string) error {
 	for _, args := range cmds {
 		cmd := exec.Command("sh", "-c", args)
@@ -2747,3 +2777,67 @@ func checkAllRemoved(t *testing.T, c *client.Client, sb integration.Sandbox) {
 func newContainerd(cdAddress string) (*containerd.Client, error) {
 	return containerd.New(cdAddress, containerd.WithTimeout(60*time.Second))
 }
+
+func dfCmdArgs(ctx, dockerfile, args string) (string, string) {
+	traceFile := filepath.Join(os.TempDir(), "trace"+identity.NewID())
+	return fmt.Sprintf("build --progress=plain %s --local context=%s --local dockerfile=%s --trace=%s", args, ctx, dockerfile, traceFile), traceFile
+}
+
+type builtinFrontend struct{}
+
+var _ frontend = &builtinFrontend{}
+
+func (f *builtinFrontend) Solve(ctx context.Context, c *client.Client, opt client.SolveOpt, statusChan chan *client.SolveStatus) (*client.SolveResponse, error) {
+	opt.Frontend = "dockerfile.v0"
+	return c.Solve(ctx, nil, opt, statusChan)
+}
+
+func (f *builtinFrontend) DFCmdArgs(ctx, dockerfile string) (string, string) {
+	return dfCmdArgs(ctx, dockerfile, "--frontend dockerfile.v0")
+}
+
+func (f *builtinFrontend) RequiresBuildctl(t *testing.T) {}
+
+type clientFrontend struct{}
+
+var _ frontend = &clientFrontend{}
+
+func (f *clientFrontend) Solve(ctx context.Context, c *client.Client, opt client.SolveOpt, statusChan chan *client.SolveStatus) (*client.SolveResponse, error) {
+	return c.Build(ctx, opt, "", builder.Build, statusChan)
+}
+
+func (f *clientFrontend) DFCmdArgs(ctx, dockerfile string) (string, string) {
+	return "", ""
+}
+func (f *clientFrontend) RequiresBuildctl(t *testing.T) {
+	t.Skip()
+}
+
+type gatewayFrontend struct {
+	gw string
+}
+
+var _ frontend = &gatewayFrontend{}
+
+func (f *gatewayFrontend) Solve(ctx context.Context, c *client.Client, opt client.SolveOpt, statusChan chan *client.SolveStatus) (*client.SolveResponse, error) {
+	opt.Frontend = "gateway.v0"
+	if opt.FrontendAttrs == nil {
+		opt.FrontendAttrs = make(map[string]string)
+	}
+	opt.FrontendAttrs["source"] = f.gw
+	return c.Solve(ctx, nil, opt, statusChan)
+}
+
+func (f *gatewayFrontend) DFCmdArgs(ctx, dockerfile string) (string, string) {
+	return dfCmdArgs(ctx, dockerfile, "--frontend gateway.v0 --frontend-opt=source="+f.gw)
+}
+
+func (f *gatewayFrontend) RequiresBuildctl(t *testing.T) {}
+
+func getFrontend(t *testing.T, sb integration.Sandbox) frontend {
+	v := sb.Value("frontend")
+	require.NotNil(t, v)
+	fn, ok := v.(frontend)
+	require.True(t, ok)
+	return fn
+}