diff --git a/.ruby-version b/.ruby-version new file mode 100644 index 0000000000..197c4d5c2d --- /dev/null +++ b/.ruby-version @@ -0,0 +1 @@ +2.4.0 diff --git a/tutorials/tour/_posts/2017-02-13-singleton-objects.md b/tutorials/tour/_posts/2017-02-13-singleton-objects.md index 9236133517..0f988a2dc9 100644 --- a/tutorials/tour/_posts/2017-02-13-singleton-objects.md +++ b/tutorials/tour/_posts/2017-02-13-singleton-objects.md @@ -10,65 +10,90 @@ num: 13 next-page: xml-processing previous-page: pattern-matching +prerequisite-knowledge: classes, methods, private-methods, packages, option --- -Methods and values that aren't associated with individual instances of a [class](classes.html) belong in *singleton objects*, denoted by using the keyword `object` instead of `class`. +A singleton object is an instance of a new class. There is exactly one instance of each singleton object. They do not have constructors so they cannot be instantiated. +# Defining a singleton object +The simplest form of an object is the keyword `object` and an identifier: +```tut +object Box ``` -package test -object Blah { - def sum(l: List[Int]): Int = l.sum -} +Here's an example of an object with a method: ``` +package logging -This `sum` method is available globally, and can be referred to, or imported, as `test.Blah.sum`. - -Singleton objects are sort of a shorthand for defining a single-use class, which can't directly be instantiated, and a `val` member at the point of definition of the `object`, with the same name. Indeed, like `val`s, singleton objects can be defined as members of a [trait](traits.html) or class, though this is atypical. - -A singleton object can extend classes and traits. In fact, a [case class](case-classes.html) with no [type parameters](generic-classes.html) will by default create a singleton object of the same name, with a [`Function*`](http://www.scala-lang.org/api/current/scala/Function1.html) trait implemented. +object Logger { + def info(message: String): Unit = println(s"INFO: $message") +} +``` +The method `info` can be imported from anywhere in the program. Creating utility methods like this is a common use case for singleton objects (however, more sophisticated logging techniques exist). Let's see how to use `info` in another package: -## Companions ## +``` +import logging.Logger.info -Most singleton objects do not stand alone, but instead are associated with a class of the same name. The “singleton object of the same name” of a case class, mentioned above, is an example of this. When this happens, the singleton object is called the *companion object* of the class, and the class is called the *companion class* of the object. +class Project(name: String, daysToComplete: Int) -[Scaladoc](https://wiki.scala-lang.org/display/SW/Introduction) has special support for jumping between a class and its companion: if the big “C” or “O” circle has its edge folded up at the bottom, you can click the circle to jump to the companion. +val project1 = new Project("TPS Reports", 1) +val project2 = new Project("Website redesign", 5) +info("Created projects") // Prints "INFO: Created projects" +``` -A class and its companion object, if any, must be defined in the same source file. Like this: +The `info` method becomes visible in the scope of the package using `import logging.Logger.info`. You could also use `import logging.Logger._` to import everything from Logger. -```tut -class IntPair(val x: Int, val y: Int) +Note: If an `object` is nested within another construct such as a class, it is only a singleton in that context. This means there could be an `object NutritionInfo` in the `class Milk` and in the `class OrangeJuice`. -object IntPair { - import math.Ordering +## Companion objects - implicit def ipord: Ordering[IntPair] = - Ordering.by(ip => (ip.x, ip.y)) -} +A singleton object with the same name as a class is called a _companion object_. Conversely, the class is the object's companion class. The companion class and object can access each other's private members. Use a companion object for methods and values which are not specific to instances of the companion class. ``` +import scala.math._ -It's common to see typeclass instances as [implicit values](implicit-parameters.html), such as `ipord` above, defined in the companion, when following the typeclass pattern. This is because the companion's members are included in the default implicit search for related values. - -## Notes for Java programmers ## +class Circle(val radius: Double) { + def area: Double = Circle.calculateArea(radius) +} -`static` is not a keyword in Scala. Instead, all members that would be static, including classes, should go in a singleton object. They can be referred to with the same syntax, imported piecemeal or as a group, and so on. +object Circle { + def calculateArea(radius: Double): Double = Pi * pow(radius, 2.0) +} -Frequently, Java programmers define static members, perhaps `private`, as implementation aids for their instance members. These move to the companion, too; a common pattern is to import the companion object's members in the class, like so: +val circle1 = new Circle(5.0) +circle1.area ``` -class X { - import X._ - def blah = foo +The `class Circle` contains the val `radius` which is specific to each instance whereas the `object Circle` contains the method `calculateArea` which is the same for every instance. + +The companion object can also contain factory methods: +```tut +class Email(val username: String, val domainName: String) + +object Email { + def fromString(emailString: String): Option[Email] = { + emailString.split('@') match { + case Array(a, b) => Some(new Email(a, b)) + case _ => None + } + } } -object X { - private def foo = 42 +val scalaCenterEmail = Email.fromString("scala.center@epfl.ch") +scalaCenterEmail match { + case Some(email) => println( + s"""Registered an email + |Username: ${email.username} + |Domain name: ${email.domainName} + """) + case None => println("Error: could not parse email") } ``` +The `object Email` contains a factory `fromString` which creates an `Email` instance from a String. We return it as an `Option[Email]` in case of parsing errors. -This illustrates another feature: in the context of `private`, a class and its companion are friends. `object X` can access private members of `class X`, and vice versa. To make a member *really* private to one or the other, use `private[this]`. +Note: If a class or object has a companion, both must be defined in the same file. To define them in the REPL, you must enter `:paste` and then paste in the class and companion object code. -For Java convenience, methods, including `var`s and `val`s, defined directly in a singleton object also have a static method defined in the companion class, called a *static forwarder*. Other members are accessible via the `X$.MODULE$` static field for `object X`. +## Notes for Java programmers ## -If you move everything to a companion object and find that all you have left is a class you don't want to be able to instantiate, simply delete the class. Static forwarders will still be created. +`static` is not a keyword in Scala. Instead, all members that would be static, including classes, should go in a singleton object instead. +When using a companion object from Java code, the members will be defined in a companion class with a `static` modifier. This is called _static forwarding_. It occurs even if you haven't defined a companion class yourself.