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<body class="mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Shamanism rootpage-Shamanism skin-vector action-view skin-vector-legacy"><div id="mw-page-base" class="noprint"></div>
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<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Shamanism</h1>
<div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body">
<div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div>
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<div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content mw-content-ltr" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="mw-parser-output"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Religious practice</div>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1033289096">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Shaman" and "Shamans" redirect here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Shaman_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Shaman (disambiguation)">Shaman (disambiguation)</a>.</div>
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<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1045330069">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:#f8f9fa;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:720px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="padding-top:0.2em;">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:lavender; padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_religion" title="Anthropology of religion">Anthropology of religion</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><div class="center"><div class="floatnone"><a href="/wiki/File:Khagdaev1.JPG" class="image"><img alt="Khagdaev1.JPG" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Khagdaev1.JPG/300px-Khagdaev1.JPG" decoding="async" width="300" height="225" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Khagdaev1.JPG/450px-Khagdaev1.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Khagdaev1.JPG/600px-Khagdaev1.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a></div></div><div class="sidebar-caption"><a href="/wiki/Buryats" title="Buryats">Buryat</a> shaman on <a href="/wiki/Olkhon_Island" title="Olkhon Island">Olkhon Island</a>, <a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align: center">Basic concepts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content nowraplinks hlist">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afterlife" title="Afterlife">Afterlife</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Animism" title="Animism">Animism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Augury" title="Augury">Augury</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Communitas" title="Communitas">Communitas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_religion" title="Comparative religion">Comparative religion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Divination" title="Divination">Divination</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Divine_language" title="Divine language">Divine language</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_origin_of_religions" title="Evolutionary origin of religions">Evolutionary origin of religions</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fetishism" title="Fetishism">Fetishism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Great_Spirit" title="Great Spirit">Great Spirit</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Henotheism" title="Henotheism">Henotheism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Initiation" title="Initiation">Initiation</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Liminality" title="Liminality">Liminality</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Magic_(supernatural)" title="Magic (supernatural)">Magic (supernatural)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mana" title="Mana">Mana</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">Monotheism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nympholepsy" title="Nympholepsy">Nympholepsy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Oracle" title="Oracle">Oracle</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Polytheism" title="Polytheism">Polytheism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rite_of_passage" title="Rite of passage">Rite of passage</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ritual" title="Ritual">Ritual</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_language" title="Sacred language">Sacred language</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sacred%E2%80%93profane_dichotomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacred–profane dichotomy">Sacred–profane dichotomy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_site" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacred site">Sacred site</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Shamanism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Soul_dualism" title="Soul dualism">Soul dualism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Superstition" title="Superstition">Superstition</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theories_about_religions" title="Theories about religions">Theories about religions</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Totem" title="Totem">Totem</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Transtheism" title="Transtheism">Transtheism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Veneration_of_the_dead" title="Veneration of the dead">Veneration of the dead</a></li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align: center">Case studies</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content nowraplinks hlist">
<dl><dt>Magic</dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coral_Gardens_and_Their_Magic" title="Coral Gardens and Their Magic">Coral Gardens and Their Magic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Trait%C3%A9_sur_les_apparitions_des_esprits_et_sur_les_vampires_ou_les_revenans_de_Hongrie,_de_Moravie,_%26c." title="Traité sur les apparitions des esprits et sur les vampires ou les revenans de Hongrie, de Moravie, &c.">Treatise on the Apparitions of<br />Spirits and on Vampires or Revenants</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Enchanted_Feminism" title="Enchanted Feminism">Neo-Paganism</a></li></ul>
<dl><dt>Ritual</dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angakkuq" title="Angakkuq">Angakkuq</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Babaylan" class="mw-redirect" title="Babaylan">Babaylan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bobohizan" title="Bobohizan">Bobohizan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bomoh" title="Bomoh">Bomoh</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bora_(Australian)" title="Bora (Australian)">Bora</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dukun" title="Dukun">Dukun</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Miko" title="Miko">Miko</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jh%C4%81kri" title="Jhākri">Jhākri</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pawang" title="Pawang">Pawang</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Slametan" title="Slametan">Slametan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wu_(shaman)" title="Wu (shaman)">Wu</a></li></ul>
<dl><dt>Revitalization movements</dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cargo_cult" title="Cargo cult">Cargo cult</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ghost_Dance" title="Ghost Dance">Ghost Dance</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Handsome_Lake" title="Handsome Lake">Handsome Lake</a></li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align: center">Related articles</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content nowraplinks hlist">
<ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Elementary_Forms_of_the_Religious_Life" title="The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life">The Elementary Forms<br />of the Religious Life</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Purity_and_Danger" title="Purity and Danger">Purity and Danger</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Myth_and_ritual" title="Myth and ritual">Myth and ritual</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology_of_religion_and_ritual" title="Archaeology of religion and ritual">Archaeology of religion and ritual</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ceremonial_pole" title="Ceremonial pole">Poles in mythology</a></li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align: center">Major theorists</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content nowraplinks hlist">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antoine_Augustin_Calmet" title="Antoine Augustin Calmet">Augustin Calmet</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Akbar_Ahmed" title="Akbar Ahmed">Akbar S. Ahmed</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Talal_Asad" title="Talal Asad">Talal Asad</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Campbell" title="Joseph Campbell">Joseph Campbell</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Douglas" title="Mary Douglas">Mary Douglas</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Émile Durkheim</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Arnold_van_Gennep" title="Arnold van Gennep">Arnold van Gennep</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/E._E._Evans-Pritchard" title="E. E. Evans-Pritchard">E. E. Evans-Pritchard</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/James_George_Frazer" title="James George Frazer">James Frazer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Clifford_Geertz" title="Clifford Geertz">Clifford Geertz</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Robin_W._G._Horton" title="Robin W. G. Horton">Robin Horton</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Claude_L%C3%A9vi-Strauss" title="Claude Lévi-Strauss">Claude Lévi-Strauss</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Ranulph_Marett" title="Robert Ranulph Marett">Robert Marett</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Rappaport" title="Roy Rappaport">Roy Rappaport</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Saba_Mahmood" title="Saba Mahmood">Saba Mahmood</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Sahlins" title="Marshall Sahlins">Marshall Sahlins</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Melford_Spiro" title="Melford Spiro">Melford Spiro</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Jeyaraja_Tambiah" title="Stanley Jeyaraja Tambiah">Stanley Tambiah</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Victor_Turner" title="Victor Turner">Victor Turner</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Burnett_Tylor" title="Edward Burnett Tylor">Edward Burnett Tylor</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Martin_Varisco" title="Daniel Martin Varisco">Daniel Martin Varisco</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_F._C._Wallace" title="Anthony F. C. Wallace">Anthony F. C. Wallace</a></li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align: center">Journals</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content nowraplinks hlist">
<ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Anthropological_Perspectives_on_Religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthropological Perspectives on Religion">Anthropological Perspectives on Religion</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Folklore_Society" title="The Folklore Society">Folklore</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Hibbert_Journal" title="The Hibbert Journal">The Hibbert Journal</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Journal_of_Religion" title="The Journal of Religion">The Journal of Religion</a></i></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Oceania_(journal)" title="Oceania (journal)">Oceania</a></i></li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align: center"><a href="/wiki/List_of_religions_and_spiritual_traditions" title="List of religions and spiritual traditions">Religions</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content nowraplinks hlist">
<dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_religion" title="Ethnic religion">Ethnic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Folk_religion" title="Folk religion">folk religions</a></dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afro-American_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Afro-American religion">Afro-American religion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alaska_Native_religion" title="Alaska Native religion">Alaska Native religion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anito" title="Anito">Anito</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Atua" title="Atua">Atua</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_shamanism" title="Mongolian shamanism">Böö mörgöl</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_folk_religion" title="Chinese folk religion">Chinese folk religion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hanitu" title="Hanitu">Hanitu</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hausa_animism" title="Hausa animism">Hausa</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kejaw%C3%A8n" title="Kejawèn">Kejawèn</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_religion" title="Native American religion">Native American religion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Noaidi" title="Noaidi">Noaidi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Korean_shamanism" title="Korean shamanism">Shindo</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Shamanism_in_Siberia" title="Shamanism in Siberia">Shamanism in Siberia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Shinto" title="Shinto">Shinto</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tengrism" title="Tengrism">Tengrism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_African_religions" title="Traditional African religions">Traditional African religions</a></li></ul>
<dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a></dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahayana</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nichiren_Buddhism" title="Nichiren Buddhism">Nichiren</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pure_Land_Buddhism" title="Pure Land Buddhism">Pure Land</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Shingon_Buddhism" title="Shingon Buddhism">Shingon</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Theravada" title="Theravada">Theravada</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiantai</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vajrayana" title="Vajrayana">Vajrayana</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a></li></ul>
<dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a></dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adventism" title="Adventism">Adventism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anglicanism" title="Anglicanism">Anglicanism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_Apostolic_Church" title="Armenian Apostolic Church">Armenian Apostolic Church</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Baptists" title="Baptists">Baptists</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Calvinism" title="Calvinism">Calvinism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Coptic_Orthodox_Church" title="Coptic Orthodox Church">Coptic Orthodoxy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodoxy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Orthodox_Tewahedo_Church" title="Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church">Ethiopian Orthodoxy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Orthodox_Church" title="Greek Orthodox Church">Greek Orthodoxy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutheranism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Methodism" title="Methodism">Methodism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Nestorianism" title="Nestorianism">Nestorianism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Oriental_Orthodoxy" class="mw-redirect" title="Oriental Orthodoxy">Oriental Orthodoxy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pentecostalism" title="Pentecostalism">Pentecostalism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestantism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Quakers" title="Quakers">Quakers</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Orthodox_Church" title="Russian Orthodox Church">Russian Orthodoxy</a></li></ul>
<dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a></dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_denominations" title="Hindu denominations">Hindu denominations</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Shaivism" title="Shaivism">Shaivism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Shaktism" title="Shaktism">Shaktism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Smartism" class="mw-redirect" title="Smartism">Smartism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vaishnavism" title="Vaishnavism">Vaishnavism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ayyavazhi" title="Ayyavazhi">Ayyavazhi</a></li></ul>
<dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a></dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahmadiyya" title="Ahmadiyya">Ahmadiyya</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ibadi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibadi">Ibadi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mahdavia" title="Mahdavia">Mahdavia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Non-denominational_Muslim" title="Non-denominational Muslim">Non-denominational</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Quranism" title="Quranism">Quranists</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shia</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sufism" title="Sufism">Sufism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunni</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Yazd%C3%A2nism" title="Yazdânism">Yazdânism</a></li></ul>
<dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a></dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Judaism" title="Conservative Judaism">Conservative</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism" title="Hasidic Judaism">Hasidic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Karaite_Judaism" title="Karaite Judaism">Karaite</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Judaism" title="Orthodox Judaism">Orthodox</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reform_Judaism" title="Reform Judaism">Reform</a></li></ul>
<dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a></dt></dl>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digambara" title="Digambara">Digambara</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Av%C4%93t%C4%81mbara" title="Śvētāmbara">Śvētāmbara</a></li></ul>
<dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Sikhism" title="Sikhism">Sikhism</a></dt></dl></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="padding-top:0.15em;">
<a href="/wiki/Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">Social</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">cultural anthropology</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1063604349">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Anthropology_of_religion" title="Template:Anthropology of religion"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Anthropology_of_religion" title="Template talk:Anthropology of religion"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Anthropology_of_religion&action=edit"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1045330069"/><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks vcard hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">This article is part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Alternative_medicine" title="Category:Alternative medicine">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Alternative_medicine" title="Alternative medicine">Alternative medicine</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Outline-body-aura.svg" class="image"><img alt="Outline-body-aura.svg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Outline-body-aura.svg/60px-Outline-body-aura.svg.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="100" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Outline-body-aura.svg/90px-Outline-body-aura.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Outline-body-aura.svg/120px-Outline-body-aura.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="675" data-file-height="1125" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:lavender;">General information</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_medicine" title="Alternative medicine">Alternative medicine</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_alternative_medicine" title="History of alternative medicine">History</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Terminology_of_alternative_medicine" title="Terminology of alternative medicine">Terminology</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_veterinary_medicine" title="Alternative veterinary medicine">Alternative veterinary medicine</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Quackery" title="Quackery">Quackery</a> (health fraud)</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine#19th_century:_rise_of_modern_medicine" title="History of medicine">Rise of modern medicine</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Antiscience" title="Antiscience">Antiscience</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Skepticism" title="Skepticism">Skepticism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Skeptical_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Skeptical movement">Skeptical movement</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Therapeutic_nihilism" title="Therapeutic nihilism">Therapeutic nihilism</a></li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:lavender;">Fringe medicine and science</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acupressure" title="Acupressure">Acupressure</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Acupuncture" title="Acupuncture">Acupuncture</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alkaline_diet" class="mw-redirect" title="Alkaline diet">Alkaline diet</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Anthroposophic_medicine" title="Anthroposophic medicine">Anthroposophic medicine</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Apitherapy" title="Apitherapy">Apitherapy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Applied_kinesiology" title="Applied kinesiology">Applied kinesiology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aromatherapy" title="Aromatherapy">Aromatherapy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Association_for_Research_and_Enlightenment" title="Association for Research and Enlightenment">Association for Research and Enlightenment</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Auriculotherapy" title="Auriculotherapy">Auriculotherapy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bates_method" title="Bates method">Bates method</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Black_salve" title="Black salve">Black salve</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bodywork_(alternative_medicine)" title="Bodywork (alternative medicine)">Bodywork</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bonesetter" class="mw-redirect" title="Bonesetter">Bonesetter</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bowen_technique" title="Bowen technique">Bowen technique</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Breathwork" title="Breathwork">Breathwork</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Camel_urine" title="Camel urine">Camel urine</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_unproven_methods_against_COVID-19" title="List of unproven methods against COVID-19">Fake COVID-19 treatments</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_cancer_treatments" title="Alternative cancer treatments">Cancer treatments</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Activated_charcoal_cleanse" title="Activated charcoal cleanse">Charcoal cleanse</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Chelation_therapy" title="Chelation therapy">Chelation therapy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Chiropractic" title="Chiropractic">Chiropractic</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chiropractic_treatment_techniques" title="Chiropractic treatment techniques">Chiropractic treatment techniques</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vertebral_subluxation" title="Vertebral subluxation">Vertebral subluxation</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Science" title="Christian Science">Christian Science</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Chromotherapy" title="Chromotherapy">Chromotherapy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Colon_cleansing" title="Colon cleansing">Colon cleansing</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coffee_enema" title="Coffee enema">Coffee enema</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Colorpuncture" title="Colorpuncture">Colorpuncture</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Colloidal_silver" class="mw-redirect" title="Colloidal silver">Colloidal silver</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Craniosacral_therapy" title="Craniosacral therapy">Craniosacral therapy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Crystal_healing" title="Crystal healing">Crystal healing</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Cupping_therapy" title="Cupping therapy">Cupping therapy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dental_amalgam_controversy" title="Dental amalgam controversy">Dental amalgam controversy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Detoxification_(alternative_medicine)" title="Detoxification (alternative medicine)">Detoxification</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Detoxification_foot_baths" title="Detoxification foot baths">Foot detox</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dry_needling" title="Dry needling">Dry needling</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ear_candling" title="Ear candling">Ear candling</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Energy_medicine" title="Energy medicine">Energy medicine</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Correactology" title="Correactology">Correactology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Energy_(esotericism)" title="Energy (esotericism)">Esoteric energy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Therapeutic_touch" title="Therapeutic touch">Therapeutic touch</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Estrogen_dominance" title="Estrogen dominance">Estrogen dominance</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fabunan_Antiviral_Injection" title="Fabunan Antiviral Injection">Fabunan Antiviral Injection</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Facilitated_communication" title="Facilitated communication">Facilitated communication</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Feldenkrais_Method" title="Feldenkrais Method">Feldenkrais Method</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Functional_medicine" title="Functional medicine">Functional medicine</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hair_analysis_(alternative_medicine)" title="Hair analysis (alternative medicine)">Hair analysis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Herbal_medicine" title="Herbal medicine">Herbal medicine</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Holistic_dentistry" title="Holistic dentistry">Holistic dentistry</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hologram_bracelet" title="Hologram bracelet">Hologram bracelet</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Homeopathy" title="Homeopathy">Homeopathy</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bach_flower_remedies" title="Bach flower remedies">Bach flower remedies</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Biological_terrain_assessment" title="Biological terrain assessment">Biological terrain assessment</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hydrotherapy" title="Hydrotherapy">Hydrotherapy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hypnotherapy" title="Hypnotherapy">Hypnotherapy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Iridology" title="Iridology">Iridology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ionized_jewelry" title="Ionized jewelry">Ionized jewelry</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jilly_Juice" title="Jilly Juice">Jilly Juice</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/The_Lightning_Process" title="The Lightning Process">Lightning Process</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_interventions" title="Mind–body interventions">Mind–body interventions</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Orgone" title="Orgone">Orgone</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Orthomolecular_medicine" title="Orthomolecular medicine">Orthomolecular medicine</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Osteopathy" title="Osteopathy">Osteopathy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ozone_therapy" title="Ozone therapy">Ozone therapy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Parapsychology" title="Parapsychology">Parapsychology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Phrenology" title="Phrenology">Phrenology</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Psychic_surgery" title="Psychic surgery">Psychic surgery</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Psychodermatology" title="Psychodermatology">Psychodermatology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_healing" title="Quantum healing">Quantum healing</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Radionics" title="Radionics">Radionics</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Rapid_prompting_method" title="Rapid prompting method">Rapid prompting method</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reichian_body-oriented_psychotherapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Reichian body-oriented psychotherapy">RBOP</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reiki" title="Reiki">Reiki</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/ThetaHealing" title="ThetaHealing">ThetaHealing</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thought_Field_Therapy" title="Thought Field Therapy">Thought Field Therapy</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Vaginal_steaming" title="Vaginal steaming">Vaginal steaming</a></li>
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<li><a href="/wiki/Vegetotherapy" title="Vegetotherapy">Vegetotherapy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Young_blood_transfusion" title="Young blood transfusion">Young blood transfusion</a></li>
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<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:lavender;"><a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_theory" title="Conspiracy theory">Conspiracy theories</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Big_Pharma_conspiracy_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Big Pharma conspiracy theory">Big Pharma conspiracy theory</a></li>
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<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-vaccinationism_in_chiropractic" title="Anti-vaccinationism in chiropractic">in chiropractic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vaccines_and_autism" title="Vaccines and autism">Vaccines and autism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/MMR_vaccine_and_autism" title="MMR vaccine and autism">MMR vaccine and autism</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Water_fluoridation_controversy" title="Water fluoridation controversy">Water fluoridation controversy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation" title="COVID-19 misinformation">COVID-19 misinformation</a></li></ul></div></div></td>
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<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:lavender;"><a href="/wiki/Alternative_medicine#NCCIH_classification" title="Alternative medicine">Classifications</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Alternative_medical_systems" title="Category:Alternative medical systems">Alternative medical systems</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Category:Mind%E2%80%93body_interventions" title="Category:Mind–body interventions">Mind–body intervention</a></li>
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<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:lavender;"><a href="/wiki/Traditional_medicine" title="Traditional medicine">Traditional medicine</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_African_medicine" title="Traditional African medicine">African</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muti" title="Muti">Muti</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_healers_of_Southern_Africa" title="Traditional healers of Southern Africa">Southern Africa</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ayurveda" title="Ayurveda">Ayurveda</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dosha" title="Dosha">Dosha</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Maharishi_Vedic_Approach_to_Health" title="Maharishi Vedic Approach to Health">MVAH</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Balneotherapy" title="Balneotherapy">Balneotherapy</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Brazilian_traditional_medicine" title="Brazilian traditional medicine">Brazilian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Bush_medicine" title="Bush medicine">Bush medicine</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Cambodian_medicine" title="Traditional Cambodian medicine">Cambodian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_medicine" title="Traditional Chinese medicine">Chinese</a>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blood_stasis" title="Blood stasis">Blood stasis</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_herbology" title="Chinese herbology">Chinese herbology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dit_da" title="Dit da">Dit da</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gua_sha" title="Gua sha">Gua sha</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Gill_plate_trade" title="Gill plate trade">Gill plate trade</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Meridian_(Chinese_medicine)" title="Meridian (Chinese medicine)">Meridian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Moxibustion" title="Moxibustion">Moxibustion</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pressure_point" title="Pressure point">Pressure point</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Qi" title="Qi">Qi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/San_Jiao" title="San Jiao">San Jiao</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tui_na" title="Tui na">Tui na</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Zang-fu" title="Zang-fu">Zang-fu</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Chumash_traditional_medicine" title="Chumash traditional medicine">Chumash</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Curandero" title="Curandero">Curandero</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Faith_healing" title="Faith healing">Faith healing</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Hilot" title="Hilot">Hilot</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_traditional_medicine" title="Iranian traditional medicine">Iranian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Jamu" title="Jamu">Jamu</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kambo_cleanse" title="Kambo cleanse">Kambo</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Kampo" title="Kampo">Japanese</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Korean_medicine" title="Traditional Korean medicine">Korean</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Mien_Shiang" title="Mien Shiang">Mien Shiang</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Mongolian_medicine" title="Traditional Mongolian medicine">Mongolian</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Prophetic_medicine" title="Prophetic medicine">Prophetic medicine</a></li>
<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Shamanism</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Shiatsu" title="Shiatsu">Shiatsu</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Siddha_medicine" title="Siddha medicine">Siddha</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sri_Lankan_traditional_medicine" title="Sri Lankan traditional medicine">Sri Lankan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Thai_massage" title="Thai massage">Thai massage</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Tibetan_medicine" title="Traditional Tibetan medicine">Tibetan</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Unani_medicine" title="Unani medicine">Unani</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Vietnamese_medicine" title="Traditional Vietnamese medicine">Vietnamese</a></li></ul></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:lavender;">Diagnoses</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adrenal_fatigue" title="Adrenal fatigue">Adrenal fatigue</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Aerotoxic_syndrome" title="Aerotoxic syndrome">Aerotoxic syndrome</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Candida_hypersensitivity" title="Candida hypersensitivity">Candida hypersensitivity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Chronic_Lyme_disease" title="Chronic Lyme disease">Chronic Lyme disease</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_hypersensitivity" title="Electromagnetic hypersensitivity">Electromagnetic hypersensitivity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Heavy_legs" title="Heavy legs">Heavy legs</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Leaky_gut_syndrome" title="Leaky gut syndrome">Leaky gut syndrome</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Multiple_chemical_sensitivity" title="Multiple chemical sensitivity">Multiple chemical sensitivity</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Wilson%27s_temperature_syndrome" title="Wilson's temperature syndrome">Wilson's temperature syndrome</a></li></ul></div></div></td>
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<p><b>Shamanism</b> is a religious practice that involves a practitioner (<b>shaman</b>) interacting with what they believe to be a <a href="/wiki/Spirit_world_(Spiritualism)" title="Spirit world (Spiritualism)">spirit world</a> through <a href="/wiki/Altered_state_of_consciousness" title="Altered state of consciousness">altered states of consciousness</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Trance" title="Trance">trance</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1">[1]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a></sup> The goal of this is usually to direct <a href="/wiki/Non-physical_entity" title="Non-physical entity">spirits</a> or <a href="/wiki/Energy_(esotericism)" title="Energy (esotericism)">spiritual energies</a> into the physical world for the purpose of healing, <a href="/wiki/Divination" title="Divination">divination</a>, or to aid human beings in some other way.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1">[1]</a></sup>
</p><p>Beliefs and practices categorized as "shamanic" have attracted the interest of scholars from a variety of disciplines, including anthropologists, archaeologists, historians, religious studies scholars, philosophers and psychologists. Hundreds of books and <a href="/wiki/Academic_publishing#Scholarly_paper" title="Academic publishing">academic papers</a> on the subject have been produced, with a peer-reviewed academic journal being devoted to the study of shamanism.
</p><p>In the 20th century, non-<a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous Peoples">Indigenous</a> Westerners involved in counter-cultural movements, such as <a href="/wiki/Hippie" title="Hippie">hippies</a> and the <a href="/wiki/New_Age" title="New Age">New Age</a> created modern magico-religious practices influenced by their ideas of various <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_religion" title="Indigenous religion">Indigenous religions</a>, creating what has been termed <i><a href="/wiki/Neoshamanism" title="Neoshamanism">neoshamanism</a></i> or the neoshamanic movement.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></sup> It has affected the development of many <a href="/wiki/Modern_Paganism" title="Modern Paganism">neopagan</a> practices, as well as faced a backlash and accusations of <a href="/wiki/Cultural_appropriation" title="Cultural appropriation">cultural appropriation</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Waveland_Press_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Waveland_Press-4">[4]</a></sup> exploitation and misrepresentation when outside observers have tried to practice the ceremonies of, or represent, centuries-old cultures to which they do not belong.<sup id="cite_ref-Wernitznig2_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wernitznig2-5">[5]</a></sup>
</p>
<div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Terminology"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Terminology</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#Etymology"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Etymology</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Definitions"><span class="tocnumber">1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Definitions</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Criticism_of_the_term"><span class="tocnumber">1.3</span> <span class="toctext">Criticism of the term</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5"><a href="#History"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">History</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-6"><a href="#Beliefs"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Beliefs</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Soul_and_spirit_concepts"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Soul and spirit concepts</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><a href="#Practice"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Practice</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Entheogens"><span class="tocnumber">4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Entheogens</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#Music_and_songs"><span class="tocnumber">4.2</span> <span class="toctext">Music and songs</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Initiation_and_learning"><span class="tocnumber">4.3</span> <span class="toctext">Initiation and learning</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#Other_practices"><span class="tocnumber">4.4</span> <span class="toctext">Other practices</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="#Items_used_in_spiritual_practice"><span class="tocnumber">4.5</span> <span class="toctext">Items used in spiritual practice</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-14"><a href="#Roles"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Roles</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-15"><a href="#Ecological_aspect"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Ecological aspect</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-16"><a href="#Economics"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Economics</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-17"><a href="#Academic_study"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">Academic study</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><a href="#Cognitive_and_evolutionary_approaches"><span class="tocnumber">8.1</span> <span class="toctext">Cognitive and evolutionary approaches</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19"><a href="#Ecological_approaches_and_systems_theory"><span class="tocnumber">8.2</span> <span class="toctext">Ecological approaches and systems theory</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-20"><a href="#Historical_origins"><span class="tocnumber">8.3</span> <span class="toctext">Historical origins</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-21"><a href="#Semiotic_and_hermeneutic_approaches"><span class="tocnumber">8.4</span> <span class="toctext">Semiotic and hermeneutic approaches</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-22"><a href="#Decline_and_revitalization_and_tradition-preserving_movements"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">Decline and revitalization and tradition-preserving movements</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-23"><a href="#Regional_variations"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">Regional variations</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-24"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">11</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-25"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">12</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a>
<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-26"><a href="#Citations"><span class="tocnumber">12.1</span> <span class="toctext">Citations</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-27"><a href="#Sources"><span class="tocnumber">12.2</span> <span class="toctext">Sources</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-28"><a href="#Further_reading"><span class="tocnumber">13</span> <span class="toctext">Further reading</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-29"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">14</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Terminology">Terminology</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shamanism&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Terminology">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Etymology">Etymology</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shamanism&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Etymology">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Witsen%27s_Shaman.JPG" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Witsen%27s_Shaman.JPG/220px-Witsen%27s_Shaman.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="116" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Witsen%27s_Shaman.JPG/330px-Witsen%27s_Shaman.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Witsen%27s_Shaman.JPG/440px-Witsen%27s_Shaman.JPG 2x" data-file-width="758" data-file-height="400" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Witsen%27s_Shaman.JPG" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>The earliest known depiction of a Siberian shaman, by the Dutch <a href="/wiki/Nicolaes_Witsen" title="Nicolaes Witsen">Nicolaes Witsen</a>, 17th century. Witsen called him a "priest of the Devil" and drew clawed feet for the supposed demonic qualities.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a></sup></div></div></div>
<p>The <a href="/wiki/Modern_English" title="Modern English">Modern English</a> word <i>shamanism</i> derives from the <a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a> word <span title="ISO 9 Cyrillic (Russian language) transliteration"><i lang="ru-Latn">šamán</i></span>, which itself comes from the word <span title="Tungus languages collective text"><i lang="tuw">samān</i></span> from a <a href="/wiki/Tungusic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Tungusic language">Tungusic language</a><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a></sup> – possibly from the southwestern dialect of the <a href="/wiki/Evenki_language" title="Evenki language">Evenki</a> spoken by the Sym Evenki peoples,<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></sup> or from the <a href="/wiki/Manchu_language" title="Manchu language">Manchu language</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a></sup> The etymology of the word is sometimes connected to the Tungus root <span title="Tungus languages collective text"><i lang="tuw">sā-</i></span>, meaning "to know".<sup id="cite_ref-cogmap_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cogmap-10">[10]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Diószegi_1962:13_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diószegi_1962:13-11">[11]</a></sup> However, Juha Janhunen questions this connection on linguistic grounds: "The possibility cannot be completely rejected, but neither should it be accepted without reservation since the assumed derivational relationship is phonologically irregular (note especially the vowel quantities)."<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Mircea_Eliade" title="Mircea Eliade">Mircea Eliade</a> noted that the <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> word <i><a href="/wiki/Sramana" class="mw-redirect" title="Sramana">śramaṇa</a></i>, designating a wandering monastic or holy figure, has spread to many Central Asian languages along with <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a> and could be the ultimate origin of the word shaman.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a></sup>
</p><p>The term was adopted by Russians interacting with the indigenous peoples in <a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a>. It is found in the memoirs of the exiled Russian churchman <a href="/wiki/Avvakum" title="Avvakum">Avvakum</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a></sup> It was brought to Western Europe twenty years later by the Dutch traveler <a href="/wiki/Nicolaes_Witsen" title="Nicolaes Witsen">Nicolaes Witsen</a>, who reported his stay and journeys among the Tungusic- and <a href="/wiki/Samoyedic_languages" title="Samoyedic languages">Samoyedic</a>-speaking <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Siberia" title="Indigenous peoples of Siberia">indigenous peoples of Siberia</a> in his book <i>Noord en Oost Tataryen</i> (1692).<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Adam_Brand_(explorer)" title="Adam Brand (explorer)">Adam Brand</a>, a merchant from <a href="/wiki/L%C3%BCbeck" title="Lübeck">Lübeck</a>, published in 1698 his account of a Russian embassy to China; a translation of his book, published the same year, introduced the word <i>shaman</i> to English speakers.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a></sup>
</p><p>Anthropologist and archaeologist Silvia Tomaskova argued that by the mid-1600s, many Europeans applied the <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a> term <i><a href="/wiki/Shaitan" title="Shaitan">shaitan</a></i> (meaning "devil") to the non-Christian practices and beliefs of indigenous peoples beyond the <a href="/wiki/Ural_Mountains" title="Ural Mountains">Ural Mountains</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a></sup> She suggests that <i>shaman</i> may have entered the various Tungus dialects as a corruption of this term, and then been told to <a href="/wiki/Christian_missionaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian missionaries">Christian missionaries</a>, explorers, soldiers and colonial administrators with whom the people had increasing contact for centuries.
</p><p>A female shaman is sometimes called a <i><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1023754711">.mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#b1d2ff}</style><span class="vanchor"><span id="shamanka"></span><span class="vanchor-text">shamanka</span></span></i>, which is not an actual Tungus term but simply <i>shaman</i> plus the Russian suffix <i><i lang="ru"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/-%D0%BA%D0%B0#Russian" class="extiw" title="wikt:-ка">-ka</a></i></i> (for <a href="/wiki/Feminine_(grammer)" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminine (grammer)">feminine</a> nouns).<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Definitions">Definitions</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shamanism&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Definitions">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:172px;"><a href="/wiki/File:SB_-_Altay_shaman_with_drum.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/SB_-_Altay_shaman_with_drum.jpg/170px-SB_-_Altay_shaman_with_drum.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="261" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/SB_-_Altay_shaman_with_drum.jpg/255px-SB_-_Altay_shaman_with_drum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/SB_-_Altay_shaman_with_drum.jpg/340px-SB_-_Altay_shaman_with_drum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="395" data-file-height="607" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:SB_-_Altay_shaman_with_drum.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>A shaman, probably <a href="/wiki/Khakas_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Khakas people">Khakas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a>, 1908<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a></sup></div></div></div>
<p>There is no single agreed-upon definition for the word "shamanism" among anthropologists. Thomas Downson suggests three shared elements of shamanism: practitioners consistently alter consciousness, the community regards altering consciousness as an important ritual practice, and the knowledge about the practice is controlled.
</p><p>The English historian <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Hutton" title="Ronald Hutton">Ronald Hutton</a> noted that by the dawn of the 21st century, there were four separate definitions of the term which appeared to be in use:
</p>
<ul><li>The first of these uses the term to refer to "anybody who contacts a spirit world while in an altered state of consciousness".</li>
<li>The second definition limits the term to refer to those who contact a spirit world while in an altered state of consciousness at the behest of others.</li>
<li>The third definition attempts to distinguish shamans from other magico-religious specialists who are believed to contact spirits, such as "<a href="/wiki/Mediumship" title="Mediumship">mediums</a>", "<a href="/wiki/Witch_doctor" title="Witch doctor">witch doctors</a>", "spiritual healers" or "prophets," by claiming that shamans undertake some particular technique not used by the others. (Problematically, scholars advocating the third view have failed to agree on what the defining technique should be.)</li>
<li>The fourth definition identified by Hutton uses "shamanism" to refer to the <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_religions" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous religions">indigenous religions</a> of Siberia and neighboring parts of Asia.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a></sup> According to the Golomt Center for Shamanic Studies, a Mongolian organisation of shamans, the Evenk word <i>shaman</i> would more accurately be translated as "priest".<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a></sup></li></ul>
<p>According to the <i><a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a></i>, a shaman (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="/ʃ/: 'sh' in 'shy'">ʃ</span><span title="/ɑː/: 'a' in 'father'">ɑː</span><span title="'m' in 'my'">m</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span></span>/</a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key"><i title="English pronunciation respelling"><span style="font-size:90%">SHAH</span>-men</i></a>, <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="/ʃ/: 'sh' in 'shy'">ʃ</span><span title="/æ/: 'a' in 'bad'">æ</span><span title="'m' in 'my'">m</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span></span>/</a></span></span> or <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="/ʃ/: 'sh' in 'shy'">ʃ</span><span title="/eɪ/: 'a' in 'face'">eɪ</span><span title="'m' in 'my'">m</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span></span>/</a></span></span>)<sup id="cite_ref-OED_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OED-22">[22]</a></sup> is someone who is regarded as having access to, and influence in, the world of <a href="/wiki/Evocation" title="Evocation">benevolent and malevolent spirits</a>, who typically enters into a <a href="/wiki/Trance" title="Trance">trance</a> state during a <a href="/wiki/Ritual" title="Ritual">ritual</a>, and practices <a href="/wiki/Divination" title="Divination">divination</a> and <a href="/wiki/Healing" title="Healing">healing</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1">[1]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-OED_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OED-22">[22]</a></sup> The word "shaman" probably originates from the <a href="/wiki/Tungusic_languages" title="Tungusic languages">Tungusic</a> <a href="/wiki/Evenki_language" title="Evenki language">Evenki language</a> of <a href="/wiki/North_Asia" title="North Asia">North Asia</a>. According to <a href="/wiki/Ethnolinguistics" title="Ethnolinguistics">ethnolinguist</a> <a href="/wiki/Juha_Janhunen" title="Juha Janhunen">Juha Janhunen</a>, "the word is attested in all of the Tungusic idioms" such as <a href="/wiki/Negidal_language" title="Negidal language">Negidal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Even_language" title="Even language">Lamut</a>, <a href="/wiki/Udege_language" title="Udege language">Udehe</a>/<a href="/wiki/Oroch_language" title="Oroch language">Orochi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nanai_language" title="Nanai language">Nanai</a>, Ilcha, <a href="/wiki/Orok_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Orok language">Orok</a>, <a href="/wiki/Manchu_language" title="Manchu language">Manchu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ulch_language" title="Ulch language">Ulcha</a>, and "nothing seems to contradict the assumption that the meaning 'shaman' also derives from <a href="/wiki/Tungusic_languages" title="Tungusic languages">Proto-Tungusic</a>" and may have roots that extend back in time at least two millennia.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a></sup> The term was introduced to the west after Russian forces <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Kazan" title="Siege of Kazan">conquered</a> the shamanistic <a href="/wiki/Khanate_of_Kazan" title="Khanate of Kazan">Khanate of Kazan</a> in 1552.
</p><p>The term "shamanism" was first applied by <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western</a> anthropologists as outside observers of the ancient religion of the <a href="/wiki/Turkic_peoples" title="Turkic peoples">Turks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mongols" title="Mongols">Mongols</a>, as well as those of the neighbouring Tungusic- and <a href="/wiki/Samoyedic_languages" title="Samoyedic languages">Samoyedic</a>-speaking peoples. Upon observing more religious traditions around the world, some Western anthropologists began to also use the term in a very broad sense. The term was used to describe unrelated magico-religious practices found within the <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_religion" title="Ethnic religion">ethnic religions</a> of other parts of Asia, Africa, Australasia and even completely unrelated parts of the Americas, as they believed these practices to be similar to one another.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a></sup> While the term has been incorrectly applied by cultural outsiders to many indigenous spiritual practices, the words “shaman” and “shamanism” do not accurately describe the variety and complexity that is indigenous spirituality. Each nation and tribe has its own way of life, and uses terms in their own languages.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Mircea_Eliade" title="Mircea Eliade">Mircea Eliade</a> writes, "A first definition of this complex phenomenon, and perhaps the least hazardous, will be: shamanism = 'technique of <a href="/wiki/Religious_ecstasy" title="Religious ecstasy">religious ecstasy</a>'."<sup id="cite_ref-Eli72_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eli72-26">[26]</a></sup> Shamanism encompasses the premise that shamans are intermediaries or messengers between the human world and the spirit worlds. Shamans are said to treat ailments and illnesses by mending the soul. Alleviating traumas affecting the soul or spirit are believed to restore the physical body of the individual to balance and wholeness. Shamans also claim to enter <a href="/wiki/Otherworld" title="Otherworld">supernatural realms</a> or <a href="/wiki/Plane_(esotericism)" title="Plane (esotericism)">dimensions</a> to obtain solutions to problems afflicting the community. Shamans claim to visit other worlds or dimensions to bring guidance to misguided souls and to ameliorate illnesses of the human soul caused by foreign elements. Shamans operate primarily within the spiritual world, which, they believe, in turn affects the human world. The restoration of balance is said to result in the elimination of the ailment.<sup id="cite_ref-Eli72_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eli72-26">[26]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Criticism_of_the_term">Criticism of the term</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shamanism&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Criticism of the term">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"/><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Medicine_man" title="Medicine man">Medicine man</a></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Shaman_tableau.png" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Shaman_tableau.png/220px-Shaman_tableau.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Shaman_tableau.png/330px-Shaman_tableau.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Shaman_tableau.png/440px-Shaman_tableau.png 2x" data-file-width="1705" data-file-height="1342" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Shaman_tableau.png" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>A tableau presenting figures of various cultures filling in mediator-like roles, often being termed as "shaman" in the literature. The tableau presents the diversity of this concept.</div></div></div>
<p>The anthropologist <a href="/wiki/Alice_Kehoe" class="mw-redirect" title="Alice Kehoe">Alice Kehoe</a> criticizes the term "shaman" in her book <i>Shamans and Religion: An Anthropological Exploration in Critical Thinking</i>. Part of this criticism involves the notion of <a href="/wiki/Cultural_appropriation" title="Cultural appropriation">cultural appropriation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Waveland_Press_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Waveland_Press-4">[4]</a></sup> This includes criticism of <a href="/wiki/New_Age" title="New Age">New Age</a> and modern Western forms of shamanism, which, according to Kehoe, misrepresent or dilute indigenous practices. Kehoe also believes that the term reinforces racist ideas such as the <a href="/wiki/Noble_savage" title="Noble savage">noble savage</a>.
</p><p>Kehoe is highly critical of <a href="/wiki/Mircea_Eliade" title="Mircea Eliade">Mircea Eliade</a>'s work on shamanism as an invention synthesized from various sources unsupported by more direct research. To Kehoe, citing that ritualistic practices (most notably drumming, trance, chanting, entheogens and hallucinogens, spirit communication and healing) as being definitive of shamanism is poor practice. Such citations ignore the fact that those practices exist outside of what is defined as shamanism and play similar roles even in non-shamanic cultures (such as the role of chanting in rituals in <a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religions" title="Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic religions</a>) and that in their expression are unique to each culture that uses them. Such practices cannot be generalized easily, accurately, or usefully into a global religion of shamanism. Because of this, Kehoe is also highly critical of the hypothesis that shamanism is an ancient, unchanged, and surviving religion from the Paleolithic period.<sup id="cite_ref-Waveland_Press_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Waveland_Press-4">[4]</a></sup>
</p><p>The term has been criticized<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag may use weasel words or too-vague attribution. (February 2021)">by whom?</span></a></i>]</sup> for its perceived colonial roots, and as a tool to perpetuate perceived contemporary linguistic colonialism. By Western scholars, the term "shamanism" is used to refer to a variety of different cultures and practices around the world, which can vary dramatically and may not be accurately represented by a single concept. Billy-Ray Belcourt, an author and award-winning scholar from the Driftpile Cree Nation in Canada, argues that using language with the intention of simplifying culture that is diverse, such as Shamanism, as it is prevalent in communities around the world and is made up of many complex components, works to conceal the complexities of the social and political violence that indigenous communities have experienced at the hands of settlers.<sup id="cite_ref-Fatal_Naming_Rituals_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fatal_Naming_Rituals-27">[27]</a></sup> Belcourt argues that language used to imply “simplicity” in regards to indigenous culture, is a tool used to belittle indigenous cultures, as it views indigenous communities solely as a result of a history embroiled in violence, that leaves indigenous communities only capable of simplicity and plainness.
</p><p>Anthropologist <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mih%C3%A1ly_Hopp%C3%A1l&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mihály Hoppál (page does not exist)">Mihály Hoppál</a> also discusses whether the term "shamanism" is appropriate. He notes that for many readers, "-ism" implies a particular dogma, like Buddhism or Judaism. He recommends using the term "shamanhood"<sup id="cite_ref-summer_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-summer-28">[28]</a></sup> or "shamanship"<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a></sup> (a term used in old Russian and German <a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">ethnographic</a> reports at the beginning of the 20th century) for stressing the diversity and the specific features of the discussed cultures. He believes that this places more stress on the local variations<sup id="cite_ref-cogmap_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cogmap-10">[10]</a></sup> and emphasizes that shamanism is not a religion of sacred <a href="/wiki/Dogma" title="Dogma">dogmas</a>, but linked to the everyday life in a practical way.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a></sup> Following similar thoughts, he also conjectures a contemporary paradigm shift.<sup id="cite_ref-summer_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-summer-28">[28]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Piers_Vitebsky" title="Piers Vitebsky">Piers Vitebsky</a> also mentions that, despite really astonishing similarities, there is no unity in shamanism. The various, fragmented shamanistic practices and beliefs coexist with other beliefs everywhere. There is no record of pure shamanistic societies (although their existence is not impossible).<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a></sup> Norwegian social anthropologist Hakan Rydving has likewise argued for the abandonment of the terms "shaman" and "shamanism" as "scientific illusions."<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a></sup>
</p><p>Dulam Bumochir has affirmed the above critiques of "shamanism" as a Western construct created for comparative purposes and, in an extensive article, has documented the role of Mongols themselves, particularly "the partnership of scholars and shamans in the reconstruction of shamanism" in post-1990/post-communist Mongolia.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-33">[33]</a></sup> This process has also been documented by Swiss anthropologist Judith Hangartner in her landmark study of Darhad shamans in Mongolia.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a></sup> Historian Karena Kollmar-Polenz argues that the social construction and reification of shamanism as a religious "other" actually began with the 18th-century writings of Tibetan Buddhist monks in Mongolia and later "probably influenced the formation of European discourse on Shamanism".<sup id="cite_ref-The_Invention_of_Shamanism_in_18t_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Invention_of_Shamanism_in_18t-35">[35]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="History">History</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shamanism&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: History">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p><span class="anchor" id="History_of_shamanism"></span>
Shamanism is a system of religious practice.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-36">[36]</a></sup> Historically, it is often associated with <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous people">indigenous</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tribal_societies" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal societies">tribal societies</a>, and involves belief that shamans, with a connection to the <a href="/wiki/Otherworld" title="Otherworld">otherworld</a>, have the power to heal the sick, communicate with spirits, and escort souls of the dead to the <a href="/wiki/Afterlife" title="Afterlife">afterlife</a>. The origins of Shamanism stem from Northern Europe and Asia.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a></sup>
</p><p>Despite structural implications of colonialism and imperialism that have limited the ability of indigenous peoples to practice traditional spiritualities, many communities are undergoing resurgence through self-determination<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a></sup> and the reclamation of dynamic traditions.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a></sup> Other groups have been able to avoid some of these structural impediments by virtue of their isolation, such as the nomadic Tuvan (with an estimated population of 3000 people surviving from this tribe).<sup id="cite_ref-:4_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-40">[40]</a></sup> Tuva is one of the most isolated Asiatic tribes in Russia where the art of shamanism has been preserved until today due to its isolated existence, allowing it to be free from the influences of other major religions.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Beliefs">Beliefs</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shamanism&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Beliefs">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>There are many variations of shamanism throughout the world, but several common beliefs are shared by all forms of shamanism. Common beliefs identified by <a href="/wiki/Mircea_Eliade" title="Mircea Eliade">Eliade</a> (1972)<sup id="cite_ref-Eli72_26-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eli72-26">[26]</a></sup> are the following:
</p>
<ul><li>Spirits exist and they play important roles both in individual lives and in human society</li>
<li>The shaman can communicate with the spirit world</li>
<li>Spirits can be benevolent or malevolent</li>
<li>The shaman can treat sickness caused by malevolent spirits</li>
<li>The shaman can employ <a href="/wiki/Trance" title="Trance">trances</a> inducing techniques to incite visionary ecstasy and go on <a href="/wiki/Vision_quest" title="Vision quest">vision quests</a></li>
<li>The shaman's spirit can leave the body to enter the <a href="/wiki/Supernatural" title="Supernatural">supernatural</a> world to search for answers</li>
<li>The shaman evokes animal images as <a href="/wiki/Spirit_guides" class="mw-redirect" title="Spirit guides">spirit guides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Omen" title="Omen">omens</a>, and message-bearers</li>
<li>The shaman can perform other varied forms of <a href="/wiki/Divination" title="Divination">divination</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scry" class="mw-redirect" title="Scry">scry</a>, throw bones or <a href="/wiki/Runes" title="Runes">runes</a>, and sometimes foretell of future events</li></ul>
<p>As Alice Kehoe<sup id="cite_ref-Waveland_Press_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Waveland_Press-4">[4]</a></sup> notes, Eliade's conceptualization of shamans produces a universalist image of indigenous cultures, which perpetuates notions of the dead (or dying) Indian<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a></sup> as well as the noble savage.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a></sup>
</p><p>Shamanism is based on the premise that the visible world is pervaded by invisible forces or spirits which affect the lives of the living.<sup id="cite_ref-Peru_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peru-44">[44]</a></sup> Although the causes of disease lie in the spiritual realm, inspired by malicious spirits, both spiritual and physical methods are used to heal. Commonly, a shaman "enters the body" of the patient to confront the spiritual infirmity and heals by banishing the infectious spirit.
</p><p>Many shamans have expert knowledge of medicinal plants native to their area, and an herbal treatment is often prescribed. In many places shamans learn directly from the plants, harnessing their effects and healing properties, after obtaining permission from the indwelling or patron spirits. In the Peruvian Amazon Basin, shamans and <i><a href="/wiki/Curandero" title="Curandero">curanderos</a></i> use medicine songs called <i><a href="/wiki/Icaro" title="Icaro">icaros</a></i> to evoke spirits. Before a spirit can be summoned it must teach the shaman its song.<sup id="cite_ref-Peru_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peru-44">[44]</a></sup> The use of <a href="/wiki/Totem" title="Totem">totemic</a> items such as rocks with special powers and an <a href="/wiki/Animism" title="Animism">animating spirit</a> is common.
</p><p>Such practices are presumably very ancient. <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> wrote in his <i><a href="/wiki/Phaedrus_(dialogue)" title="Phaedrus (dialogue)">Phaedrus</a></i> that the "first prophecies were the words of an oak", and that those who lived at that time found it rewarding enough to "listen to an oak or a stone, so long as it was telling the truth".
</p><p>Belief in witchcraft and sorcery, known as <i><a href="/wiki/Brujer%C3%ADa" class="mw-redirect" title="Brujería">brujería</a></i> in Latin America, exists in many societies. Other societies assert all shamans have the power to both cure and kill. Those with shamanic knowledge usually enjoy great power and prestige in the community, but they may also be regarded suspiciously or fearfully as potentially harmful to others.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a></sup>
</p><p>By engaging in their work, a shaman is exposed to significant personal risk as shamanic plant materials can be toxic or fatal if misused. <a href="/wiki/Spell_(paranormal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Spell (paranormal)">Spells</a> are commonly used in an attempt to protect against these dangers, and the use of more dangerous plants is often very highly ritualized.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Soul_and_spirit_concepts">Soul and spirit concepts</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shamanism&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Soul and spirit concepts">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"/><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Soul_dualism" title="Soul dualism">Soul dualism</a></div>
<dl><dt>Soul</dt>
<dd><a href="/wiki/Soul_(spirit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Soul (spirit)">Soul</a> can generally explain more, seemingly unassociated phenomena in shamanism:<sup id="cite_ref-all-soul_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-all-soul-46">[46]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-soulsham_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-soulsham-48">[48]</a></sup></dd></dl>
<dl><dt>Healing</dt>
<dd><a href="/wiki/Healing" title="Healing">Healing</a> may be based closely on the soul concepts of the belief system of the people served by the shaman.<sup id="cite_ref-sem-shamheal_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sem-shamheal-49">[49]</a></sup> It may consist of the supposed retrieving the lost soul of the ill person.<sup id="cite_ref-resoul_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-resoul-50">[50]</a></sup></dd></dl>
<dl><dt>Scarcity of hunted game</dt>
<dd><a href="/wiki/Scarcity" title="Scarcity">Scarcity</a> of hunted game can be solved by "releasing" the souls of the animals from their hidden abodes. Besides that, many <a href="/wiki/Taboo" title="Taboo">taboos</a> may prescribe the behavior of people towards game, so that the souls of the animals do not feel angry or hurt, or the pleased soul of the already killed prey can tell the other, still living animals, that they can allow themselves to be caught and killed.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gab-KarEszk_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gab-KarEszk-52">[52]</a></sup></dd></dl>
<dl><dt>Infertility of women</dt>
<dd><a href="/wiki/Infertility" title="Infertility">Infertility</a> of women is thought to be cured by obtaining the soul of the expected child<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></dd></dl>
<dl><dt>Spirits</dt>
<dd>Spirits are invisible entities that only shamans can see. They are seen as persons that can assume a human or animal body.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-53">[53]</a></sup> Some animals in their physical forms are also seen as spirits such as the case of the <a href="/wiki/Eagle" title="Eagle">eagle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Snake" title="Snake">snake</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jaguar" title="Jaguar">jaguar</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Rat" title="Rat">rat</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-53">[53]</a></sup> Beliefs related to spirits can explain many different phenomena.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a></sup> For example, the importance of storytelling, or acting as a singer, can be understood better if the whole belief system is examined. A person who can memorize long texts or songs, and play an instrument, may be regarded as the beneficiary of contact with the spirits (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Khanty" title="Khanty">Khanty</a> people).<sup id="cite_ref-singtellplay_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-singtellplay-55">[55]</a></sup></dd></dl>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Practice">Practice</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shamanism&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Practice">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"/><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Religious_ecstasy" title="Religious ecstasy">Religious ecstasy</a></div>
<p>Generally, shamans traverse the <a href="/wiki/Axis_mundi" title="Axis mundi">axis mundi</a> and enter the "spirit world" by effecting a transition of consciousness, entering into an <a href="/wiki/Religious_ecstasy" title="Religious ecstasy">ecstatic</a> trance, either <a href="/wiki/Autosuggestion" title="Autosuggestion">autohypnotically</a> or through the use of <a href="/wiki/Entheogen" title="Entheogen">entheogens</a> or ritual performances.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a></sup> The methods employed are diverse, and are often used together.
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Entheogens">Entheogens</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shamanism&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Entheogens">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:172px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Flowering_San_Pedro_cactus.jpg" class="image"><img alt="text" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Flowering_San_Pedro_cactus.jpg/170px-Flowering_San_Pedro_cactus.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Flowering_San_Pedro_cactus.jpg/255px-Flowering_San_Pedro_cactus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Flowering_San_Pedro_cactus.jpg/340px-Flowering_San_Pedro_cactus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="2048" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Flowering_San_Pedro_cactus.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Flowering <a href="/wiki/Echinopsis_pachanoi" title="Echinopsis pachanoi">San Pedro</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Entheogen" title="Entheogen">entheogenic</a> cactus that has been used for over 3,000 years.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a></sup> Today the vast majority of extracted <a href="/wiki/Mescaline" title="Mescaline">mescaline</a> is from columnar cacti, not vulnerable <a href="/wiki/Peyote" title="Peyote">peyote</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a></sup></div></div></div>
<p>An entheogen ("generating the divine within")<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a></sup> is a <a href="/wiki/Psychoactive_drug" title="Psychoactive drug">psychoactive</a> substance used in a <a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religious</a>, shamanic, or <a href="/wiki/Spirituality" title="Spirituality">spiritual</a> context.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a></sup> Entheogens have been used in a ritualized context, in a number of different cultures, possibly for thousands of years. Examples of substances used by some cultures as entheogens include: <a href="/wiki/Peyote" title="Peyote">peyote</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Psilocybin_mushroom" title="Psilocybin mushroom">psilocybin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Amanita_muscaria" title="Amanita muscaria">Amanita muscaria (fly agaric)</a> mushrooms,<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a></sup> uncured <a href="/wiki/Tobacco" title="Tobacco">tobacco</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Cannabis_(drug)" title="Cannabis (drug)">cannabis</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ayahuasca" title="Ayahuasca">ayahuasca</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Salvia_divinorum" title="Salvia divinorum">Salvia divinorum</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Tabernanthe_iboga" title="Tabernanthe iboga">iboga</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a></sup>
</p><p>Entheogens also have a substantial history of commodification, especially in the realm of <a href="/wiki/Spiritual_tourism" class="mw-redirect" title="Spiritual tourism">spiritual tourism</a>. For instance, countries such as Brazil and Peru have faced an influx of tourists since the psychedelic era beginning in the late 1960s, initiating what has been termed "ayahuasca tourism."<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Music_and_songs">Music and songs</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shamanism&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Music and songs">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"/><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Shamanic_music" title="Shamanic music">Shamanic music</a> and <a href="/wiki/Imitation_of_sounds_in_shamanism" title="Imitation of sounds in shamanism">Imitation of sounds in shamanism</a></div>
<p>Just like shamanism itself,<sup id="cite_ref-cogmap_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cogmap-10">[10]</a></sup> music and songs related to it in various cultures are diverse. In several instances, songs related to shamanism are intended to imitate <a href="/wiki/Natural_sounds" title="Natural sounds">natural sounds</a>, via <a href="/wiki/Onomatopoeia" title="Onomatopoeia">onomatopoeia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-onom_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-onom-70">[70]</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Sound_mimesis_in_various_cultures" title="Sound mimesis in various cultures">Sound mimesis in various cultures</a> may serve other functions not necessarily related to shamanism: practical goals such as luring game in the hunt;<sup id="cite_ref-natt_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-natt-71">[71]</a></sup> or entertainment (<a href="/wiki/Inuit_throat_singing" title="Inuit throat singing">Inuit throat singing</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-natt_71-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-natt-71">[71]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-desch_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-desch-72">[72]</a></sup>
</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Initiation_and_learning">Initiation and learning</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shamanism&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Initiation and learning">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Shamans often claim to have been called through dreams or signs. However, some say their powers are inherited. In traditional societies shamanic training varies in length, but generally takes years.
</p><p>Turner and colleagues<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a></sup> mention a phenomenon called "shamanistic initiatory crisis", a <a href="/wiki/Rite_of_passage" title="Rite of passage">rite of passage</a> for shamans-to-be, commonly involving physical illness or psychological crisis. The significant role of initiatory illnesses in the calling of a shaman can be found in the case history of <a href="/wiki/Oroqen_people#Religion" title="Oroqen people">Chuonnasuan</a>, who was one of the last shamans among the Tungus peoples in <a href="/wiki/Northeast_China" title="Northeast China">Northeast China</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a></sup>
</p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Wounded_healer" title="Wounded healer">wounded healer</a> is an <a href="/wiki/Archetype" title="Archetype">archetype</a> for a shamanic trial and journey. This process is important to young shamans. They undergo a type of sickness that pushes them to the brink of death. This is said to happen for two reasons:
</p>
<ul><li>The shaman crosses over to the underworld. This happens so the shaman can venture to its depths to bring back vital information for the sick and the tribe.</li>
<li>The shaman must become sick to understand sickness. When the shaman overcomes their own sickness, they believe that they will hold the cure to heal all that suffer.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a></sup></li></ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Other_practices">Other practices</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shamanism&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Other practices">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecstatic_dance" title="Ecstatic dance">Ecstatic dancing</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Icaro" title="Icaro">Icaros</a></i> / medicine songs<sup id="cite_ref-Peru_44-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peru-44">[44]</a></sup></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Vigil" title="Vigil">Vigils</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Fasting" title="Fasting">Fasting</a></li>
<li><i><a href="/wiki/Mariri" class="mw-redirect" title="Mariri">Mariri</a></i></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ayahuasca" title="Ayahuasca">Ayahuasca</a> ceremonies</li></ul>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Items_used_in_spiritual_practice">Items used in spiritual practice</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shamanism&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Items used in spiritual practice">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Shamans may employ varying materials in spiritual practice in different cultures.
</p>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Goldes_shaman_priest_in_his_regalia.png" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Goldes_shaman_priest_in_his_regalia.png/220px-Goldes_shaman_priest_in_his_regalia.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Goldes_shaman_priest_in_his_regalia.png/330px-Goldes_shaman_priest_in_his_regalia.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Goldes_shaman_priest_in_his_regalia.png/440px-Goldes_shaman_priest_in_his_regalia.png 2x" data-file-width="621" data-file-height="489" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Goldes_shaman_priest_in_his_regalia.png" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div><a href="/wiki/Nanai_people" title="Nanai people">Goldes</a> shaman priest in his <a href="/wiki/Regalia#Other_uses" title="Regalia">regalia</a></div></div></div>
<ul><li><b>Drums</b> – The <a href="/wiki/Drum" title="Drum">drum</a> is used by shamans of several peoples in Siberia.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a></sup> The beating of the drum allows the shaman to achieve an altered state of consciousness or to travel on a journey between the physical and spiritual worlds. Much fascination surrounds the role that the acoustics of the drum play to the shaman. Shaman drums are generally constructed of an animal-skin stretched over a bent wooden hoop, with a handle across the hoop.</li></ul>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Roles">Roles</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shamanism&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Roles">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Een_shamaan_op_Zuid-Boeroe_bezweert_boze_geesten_de_kinderen_te_verlaten_waarbij_hij_een_geldstuk_en_een_sirihnoot_offert_TMnr_10001031.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Een_shamaan_op_Zuid-Boeroe_bezweert_boze_geesten_de_kinderen_te_verlaten_waarbij_hij_een_geldstuk_en_een_sirihnoot_offert_TMnr_10001031.jpg/220px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Een_shamaan_op_Zuid-Boeroe_bezweert_boze_geesten_de_kinderen_te_verlaten_waarbij_hij_een_geldstuk_en_een_sirihnoot_offert_TMnr_10001031.jpg/330px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Een_shamaan_op_Zuid-Boeroe_bezweert_boze_geesten_de_kinderen_te_verlaten_waarbij_hij_een_geldstuk_en_een_sirihnoot_offert_TMnr_10001031.jpg/440px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="499" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Een_shamaan_op_Zuid-Boeroe_bezweert_boze_geesten_de_kinderen_te_verlaten_waarbij_hij_een_geldstuk_en_een_sirihnoot_offert_TMnr_10001031.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div><a href="/wiki/Maluku_Islands" title="Maluku Islands">South Moluccan</a> shaman in an <a href="/wiki/Exorcising" class="mw-redirect" title="Exorcising">exorcism</a> ritual involving children, <a href="/wiki/Buru" title="Buru">Buru</a>, Indonesia (1920)</div></div></div>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:An_Itneg_shaman_renewing_an_offering_to_the_spirit_shield_(1922,_Philippines).jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/An_Itneg_shaman_renewing_an_offering_to_the_spirit_shield_%281922%2C_Philippines%29.jpg/220px-An_Itneg_shaman_renewing_an_offering_to_the_spirit_shield_%281922%2C_Philippines%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="130" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/An_Itneg_shaman_renewing_an_offering_to_the_spirit_shield_%281922%2C_Philippines%29.jpg/330px-An_Itneg_shaman_renewing_an_offering_to_the_spirit_shield_%281922%2C_Philippines%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/An_Itneg_shaman_renewing_an_offering_to_the_spirit_shield_%281922%2C_Philippines%29.jpg/440px-An_Itneg_shaman_renewing_an_offering_to_the_spirit_shield_%281922%2C_Philippines%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2751" data-file-height="1629" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:An_Itneg_shaman_renewing_an_offering_to_the_spirit_shield_(1922,_Philippines).jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>A <a href="/wiki/Philippine_shamans" class="mw-redirect" title="Philippine shamans">shaman</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Itneg_people" title="Itneg people">Itneg people</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a> renewing an offering to the spirit (<i><a href="/wiki/Anito" title="Anito">anito</a></i>) of a warrior's shield (<i><a href="/wiki/Kalasag" title="Kalasag">kalasag</a></i>) (1922)<sup id="cite_ref-cole_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cole-78">[78]</a></sup></div></div></div>
<p>Shamans have been conceptualized as those who are able to gain knowledge and power to heal in the <a href="/wiki/Spirit_world_(Spiritualism)" title="Spirit world (Spiritualism)">spiritual world</a> or dimension. Most shamans have dreams or <a href="/wiki/Vision_(spirituality)" title="Vision (spirituality)">visions</a> that convey certain messages. Shamans may claim to have or have acquired many <a href="/wiki/Spirit_guides" class="mw-redirect" title="Spirit guides">spirit guides</a>, who they believe guide and direct them in their travels in the spirit world. These spirit guides are always thought to be present within the shaman, although others are said to encounter them only when the shaman is in a <a href="/wiki/Trance" title="Trance">trance</a>. The spirit guide energizes the shamans, enabling them to enter the spiritual dimension. Shamans claim to heal within the communities and the spiritual dimension by returning lost parts of the human soul from wherever they have gone. Shamans also claim to cleanse excess negative energies, which are said to confuse or pollute the soul.
Shamans act as <a href="/wiki/Mediation" title="Mediation">mediators</a> in their cultures.<sup id="cite_ref-mediator_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mediator-79">[79]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-mediator2_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mediator2-80">[80]</a></sup> Shamans claim to communicate with the spirits on behalf of the community, including the spirits of the deceased. Shamans believe they can communicate with both living and dead to alleviate unrest, unsettled issues, and to deliver gifts to the spirits.
</p><p>Among the <a href="/wiki/Selkup_people" title="Selkup people">Selkups</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Merginae" class="mw-redirect" title="Merginae">sea duck</a> is a spirit animal. Ducks fly in the air and dive in the water and are thus believed to belong to both the upper world and the world below.<sup id="cite_ref-Hoppal_a_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hoppal_a-81">[81]</a></sup> Among other Siberian peoples, these characteristics are attributed to waterfowl in general.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a></sup> The upper world is the afterlife primarily associated with deceased humans and is believed to be accessed by soul journeying through a portal in the sky. The lower world or "world below" is the afterlife primarily associated with animals and is believed to be accessed by soul journeying through a portal in the earth.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a></sup> In shamanic cultures, many animals are regarded as spirit animals.
</p><p>Shamans perform a variety of functions depending upon their respective cultures;<sup id="cite_ref-multfunc_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-multfunc-84">[84]</a></sup> healing,<sup id="cite_ref-sem-shamheal_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sem-shamheal-49">[49]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a></sup> leading a <a href="/wiki/Sacrifice" title="Sacrifice">sacrifice</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a></sup> preserving traditions by storytelling and songs,<sup id="cite_ref-memory_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-memory-87">[87]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Fortune-telling" title="Fortune-telling">fortune-telling</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a></sup> and acting as a <a href="/wiki/Psychopomp" title="Psychopomp">psychopomp</a> ("guide of souls").<sup id="cite_ref-psychopomp_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-psychopomp-89">[89]</a></sup> A single shaman may fulfill several of these functions.<sup id="cite_ref-multfunc_84-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-multfunc-84">[84]</a></sup>
</p><p>The functions of a shaman may include either guiding to their proper abode the souls of the dead (which may be guided either one-at-a-time or in a group, depending on the culture), and the curing of ailments. The ailments may be either purely physical afflictions—such as disease, which are claimed to be cured by gifting, flattering, threatening, or wrestling the disease-spirit (sometimes trying all these, sequentially), and which may be completed by displaying a supposedly extracted token of the disease-spirit (displaying this, even if "fraudulent", is supposed to impress the disease-spirit that it has been, or is in the process of being, defeated so that it will retreat and stay out of the patient's body), or else mental (including psychosomatic) afflictions—such as persistent terror, which is likewise believed to be cured by similar methods. In most languages a different term other than the one translated "shaman" is usually applied to a religious official leading sacrificial rites ("priest"), or to a raconteur ("sage") of traditional lore; there may be more of an overlap in functions (with that of a shaman), however, in the case of an interpreter of omens or of dreams.
</p><p>There are distinct types of shamans who perform more specialized functions. For example, among the <a href="/wiki/Nani_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Nani people">Nani people</a>, a distinct kind of shaman acts as a psychopomp.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a></sup> Other specialized shamans may be distinguished according to the type of spirits, or realms of the spirit world, with which the shaman most commonly interacts. These roles vary among the <a href="/wiki/Nenets_people" title="Nenets people">Nenets</a>, <a href="/wiki/Enets_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Enets people">Enets</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Selkup_people" title="Selkup people">Selkup</a> shamans.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a></sup>
</p><p>The assistant of an <a href="/wiki/Oroqen_people" title="Oroqen people">Oroqen</a> shaman (called <i>jardalanin</i>, or "second spirit") knows many things about the associated beliefs. He or she accompanies the rituals and interprets the behaviors of the shaman.<sup id="cite_ref-Guan_Kouni_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Guan_Kouni-93">[93]</a></sup> Despite these functions, the <i>jardalanin</i> is not a shaman. For this interpretative assistant, it would be unwelcome to fall into a trance.<sup id="cite_ref-interpreter_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-interpreter-94">[94]</a></sup>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Ecological_aspect">Ecological aspect</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shamanism&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Ecological aspect">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>Among the <a href="/wiki/Tucano_people" title="Tucano people">Tucano people</a>, a sophisticated system exists for <a href="/wiki/Environmental_resource_management" title="Environmental resource management">environmental resources management</a> and for avoiding resource depletion through overhunting. This system is conceptualized mythologically and symbolically by the belief that breaking hunting restrictions may cause illness. As the primary teacher of tribal symbolism, the shaman may have a leading role in this <a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">ecological</a> management, actively restricting hunting and fishing. The shaman is able to "release" game animals, or their souls, from their hidden abodes.<sup id="cite_ref-eco_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eco-95">[95]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Piaroa_people" title="Piaroa people">Piaroa people</a> have ecological concerns related to shamanism.<sup id="cite_ref-ecopia_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ecopia-97">[97]</a></sup> Among the <a href="/wiki/Inuit" title="Inuit">Inuit</a> the <i><a href="/wiki/Angakkuq" title="Angakkuq">angakkuq</a></i> (shamans) fetch the souls of game from remote places,<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a></sup> or <a href="/wiki/Astral_projection" title="Astral projection">soul travel</a> to ask for game from mythological beings like the <a href="/wiki/Sedna_(mythology)" title="Sedna (mythology)">Sea Woman</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a></sup>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Economics">Economics</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shamanism&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Economics">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>The way shamans get sustenance and take part in everyday life varies across cultures. In many Inuit groups, they provide services for the community and get a "due payment",<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (February 2012)">who?</span></a></i>]</sup> and believe the payment is given to the helping spirits.<sup id="cite_ref-mshare_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mshare-101">[101]</a></sup> An account states that the gifts and payments that a shaman receives are given by his partner spirit. Since it obliges the shaman to use his gift and to work regularly in this capacity, the spirit rewards him with the goods that it receives.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a></sup> These goods, however, are only "welcome addenda". They are not enough to enable a full-time shaman. Shamans live like any other member of the group, as a hunter or housewife. Due to the popularity of <a href="/wiki/Ayahuasca" title="Ayahuasca">ayahuasca tourism</a> in South America, there are practitioners in areas frequented by backpackers who make a living from leading ceremonies.<sup id="cite_ref-failed-shaman_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-failed-shaman-103">[103]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-mshare_101-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mshare-101">[101]</a></sup>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Academic_study">Academic study</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shamanism&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Academic study">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:172px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Shaman.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Shaman.jpg/170px-Shaman.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="232" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Shaman.jpg/255px-Shaman.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Shaman.jpg/340px-Shaman.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1313" data-file-height="1792" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Shaman.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div><a href="/wiki/S%C3%A1mi_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Sámi people">Sámi</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Noaidi" title="Noaidi">noaidi</a> with his drum</i></div></div></div>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Cognitive_and_evolutionary_approaches">Cognitive and evolutionary approaches</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shamanism&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Cognitive and evolutionary approaches">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>There are two major frameworks among cognitive and evolutionary scientists for explaining shamanism. The first, proposed by anthropologist Michael Winkelman, is known as the "neurotheological theory".<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a></sup> According to Winkelman, shamanism develops reliably in human societies because it provides valuable benefits to the practitioner, their group, and individual clients. In particular, the trance states induced by dancing, hallucinogens, and other triggers are hypothesized to have an "integrative" effect on cognition, allowing communication among mental systems that specialize in <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_mind" title="Theory of mind">theory of mind</a>, social intelligence, and natural history.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a></sup> With this cognitive integration, the shaman can better predict the movement of animals, resolve group conflicts, plan migrations, and provide other useful services.
</p><p>The neurotheological theory contrasts with the "by-product" or "subjective" model of shamanism developed by Harvard anthropologist Manvir Singh.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1">[1]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a></sup> According to Singh, shamanism is a cultural technology that adapts to (or hacks) our psychological biases to convince us that a specialist can influence important but uncontrollable outcomes.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a></sup> Citing work on <a href="/wiki/Superstition#Superstition_and_psychology" title="Superstition">the psychology of magic and superstition</a>, Singh argues that humans search for ways of influencing uncertain events, such as healing illness, controlling rain, or attracting animals. As specialists compete to help their clients control these outcomes, they drive the evolution of psychologically compelling magic, producing traditions adapted to people's cognitive biases. Shamanism, Singh argues, is the culmination of this cultural evolutionary process—a psychologically appealing method for controlling uncertainty. For example, some shamanic practices exploit our intuitions about humanness: Practitioners use trance and dramatic initiations to seemingly become entities distinct from normal humans and thus more apparently capable of interacting with the invisible forces believed to oversee important outcomes. Influential cognitive and anthropological scientists such as <a href="/wiki/Pascal_Boyer" title="Pascal Boyer">Pascal Boyer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Humphrey" title="Nicholas Humphrey">Nicholas Humphrey</a> have endorsed Singh's approach,<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a></sup> although other researchers have criticized Singh's dismissal of individual- and group-level benefits.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a></sup>
</p><p>David Lewis-Williams explains the origins of shamanic practice, and some of its precise forms, through aspects of human consciousness evinced in cave art and LSD experiments alike.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Ecological_approaches_and_systems_theory">Ecological approaches and systems theory</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shamanism&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Ecological approaches and systems theory">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p><a href="/wiki/Gerardo_Reichel-Dolmatoff" title="Gerardo Reichel-Dolmatoff">Gerardo Reichel-Dolmatoff</a> relates these concepts to developments in the ways that modern science (systems theory, ecology, new approaches in anthropology and archeology) treats <a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">causality</a> in a less linear fashion.<sup id="cite_ref-eco_95-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eco-95">[95]</a></sup> He also suggests a cooperation of modern science and indigenous lore.<sup id="cite_ref-coop_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-coop-114">[114]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Historical_origins">Historical origins</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shamanism&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Historical origins">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>Shamanic practices may originate as early as the <a href="/wiki/Paleolithic" title="Paleolithic">Paleolithic</a>, predating all organized religions,<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Narr_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Narr-116">[116]</a></sup> and certainly as early as the <a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a> period.<sup id="cite_ref-Narr_116-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Narr-116">[116]</a></sup> The earliest known undisputed burial of a shaman (and by extension the earliest undisputed evidence of shamans and shamanic practices) dates back to the early <a href="/wiki/Upper_Paleolithic" title="Upper Paleolithic">Upper Paleolithic era</a> (c. 30,000 BP) in what is now the Czech Republic.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a></sup>
</p><p>Sanskrit scholar and comparative mythologist <a href="/wiki/Michael_Witzel" title="Michael Witzel">Michael Witzel</a> proposes that all of the world's mythologies, and also the concepts and practices of shamans, can be traced to the migrations of two prehistoric populations: the "<a href="/wiki/Gondwana" title="Gondwana">Gondwana</a>" type (of circa 65,000 years ago) and the "<a href="/wiki/Laurasia" title="Laurasia">Laurasian</a>" type (of circa 40,000 years ago).<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a></sup>
</p><p>In November 2008, researchers from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem announced the discovery of a 12,000-year-old site in <a href="/wiki/Pre-history_of_the_Southern_Levant" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-history of the Southern Levant">Israel</a> that is perceived as one of the earliest-known shaman burials. The elderly woman had been arranged on her side, with her legs apart and folded inward at the knee. Ten large stones were placed on the head, pelvis, and arms. Among her unusual <a href="/wiki/Grave_goods" title="Grave goods">grave goods</a> were 50 complete tortoise shells, a human foot, and certain body parts from animals such as a cow tail and eagle wings. Other animal remains came from a boar, leopard, and two martens. "It seems that the woman … was perceived as being in a close relationship with these animal spirits", researchers noted. The grave was one of at least 28 graves at the site, located in a cave in lower <a href="/wiki/Galilee" title="Galilee">Galilee</a> and belonging to the <a href="/wiki/Natufian_culture" title="Natufian culture">Natufian culture</a>, but is said to be unlike any other among the Epipaleolithic Natufians or in the Paleolithic period.<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a></sup>
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<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Semiotic_and_hermeneutic_approaches">Semiotic and hermeneutic approaches</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shamanism&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Semiotic and hermeneutic approaches">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<p>A debated etymology of the word "shaman" is "one who knows",<sup id="cite_ref-Diószegi_1962:13_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diószegi_1962:13-11">[11]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hoppál_2005:14_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hoppál_2005:14-120">[120]</a></sup> implying, among other things, that the shaman is an expert in keeping together the multiple <a href="/wiki/Code" title="Code">codes</a> of the society, and that to be effective, shamans must maintain a comprehensive view in their mind which gives them certainty of <a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-cogmap_10-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cogmap-10">[10]</a></sup> According to this view, the shaman uses (and the audience understands) multiple codes, expressing meanings in many ways: verbally, musically, artistically, and in dance. Meanings may be manifested in objects such as <a href="/wiki/Amulet" title="Amulet">amulets</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hoppál_2005:14_120-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hoppál_2005:14-120">[120]</a></sup> If the shaman knows the culture of their community well,<sup id="cite_ref-mediator2_80-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mediator2-80">[80]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-knowncult_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-knowncult-122">[122]</a></sup> and acts accordingly, their audience will know the used symbols and meanings and therefore trust the shamanic worker.<sup id="cite_ref-knowncult_122-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-knowncult-122">[122]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-etym2_123-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-etym2-123">[123]</a></sup>
</p><p>There are also <a href="/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">semiotic</a>, theoretical approaches to shamanism,<sup id="cite_ref-semi_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-semi-124">[124]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a></sup> and examples of "mutually opposing symbols" in academic studies of Siberian lore, distinguishing a "white" shaman who contacts sky spirits for good aims by day, from a "black" shaman who contacts evil spirits for bad aims by night.<sup id="cite_ref-semiotics_of_shamanism_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-semiotics_of_shamanism-127">[127]</a></sup> (Series of such opposing symbols referred to a world-view behind them. Analogously to the way grammar arranges words to express meanings and convey a world, also this formed a cognitive map).<sup id="cite_ref-cogmap_10-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cogmap-10">[10]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-hop-natworsib_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hop-natworsib-128">[128]</a></sup> Shaman's lore is rooted in the folklore of the community, which provides a "mythological mental map".<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hoppál_2007c_25_130-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hoppál_2007c_25-130">[130]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Juha_Pentik%C3%A4inen" title="Juha Pentikäinen">Juha Pentikäinen</a> uses the concept <i>"grammar of mind"</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hoppál_2007c_25_130-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hoppál_2007c_25-130">[130]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a></sup>
</p><p>Armin Geertz coined and introduced the <a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">hermeneutics</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a></sup> or "ethnohermeneutics",<sup id="cite_ref-hop-natworsib_128-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hop-natworsib-128">[128]</a></sup> interpretation. Hoppál extended the term to include not only the interpretation of oral and written texts, but that of "visual texts as well (including motions, gestures and more complex rituals, and ceremonies performed, for instance, by shamans)".<sup id="cite_ref-ethnohermeneutics_133-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ethnohermeneutics-133">[133]</a></sup> Revealing the <a href="/wiki/Animism" title="Animism">animistic</a> views in shamanism, but also their relevance to the contemporary world, where ecological problems have validated paradigms of balance and protection.<sup id="cite_ref-Hoppál_2007c_25_130-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hoppál_2007c_25-130">[130]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Decline_and_revitalization_and_tradition-preserving_movements">Decline and revitalization and tradition-preserving movements</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shamanism&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Decline and revitalization and tradition-preserving movements">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<p>Traditional, Indigenous shamanism is believed to be declining around the world. Whalers who frequently interacted with Inuit groups are one source of this decline in that region.<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a></sup>
</p>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:172px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Kyzyl_Shaman.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Kyzyl_Shaman.jpg/170px-Kyzyl_Shaman.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="266" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Kyzyl_Shaman.jpg/255px-Kyzyl_Shaman.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Kyzyl_Shaman.jpg/340px-Kyzyl_Shaman.jpg 2x" data-file-width="377" data-file-height="591" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Kyzyl_Shaman.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>A shaman doctor of <a href="/wiki/Kyzyl" title="Kyzyl">Kyzyl</a>, 2005. Attempts are being made to preserve and revitalize <a href="/wiki/Tuvans" title="Tuvans">Tuvan</a> shamanism:<sup id="cite_ref-tuva_135-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tuva-135">[135]</a></sup> former authentic shamans have begun to practice again, and young apprentices are being educated in an organized way.<sup id="cite_ref-authentic-revitalization-tuva_136-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-authentic-revitalization-tuva-136">[136]</a></sup></div></div></div>
<p>In many areas, former shamans ceased to fulfill the functions in the community they used to, as they felt mocked by their own community,<sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a></sup> or regarded their own past as deprecated and were unwilling to talk about it to ethnographers.<sup id="cite_ref-shamed_138-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shamed-138">[138]</a></sup>
</p><p>Besides personal communications of former shamans, folklore texts may narrate directly about a deterioration process. For example, a <a href="/wiki/Buryats" title="Buryats">Buryat</a> epic text details the wonderful deeds of the ancient "first shaman" Kara-Gürgän:<sup id="cite_ref-Kara-Gurgan_139-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kara-Gurgan-139">[139]</a></sup> he could even compete with God, create life, steal back the soul of the sick from God without his consent. A subsequent text laments that shamans of older times were stronger, possessing capabilities like omnividence,<sup id="cite_ref-flatland_140-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-flatland-140">[140]</a></sup> fortune-telling even for decades in the future, moving as fast as a bullet.<sup id="cite_ref-deter_141-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-deter-141">[141]</a></sup>
</p><p>In most affected areas, shamanic practices ceased to exist, with authentic shamans dying and their personal experiences dying with them. The loss of memories is not always lessened by the fact the shaman is not always the only person in a community who knows the beliefs and motives related to the local shaman-hood.<sup id="cite_ref-Guan_Kouni_93-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Guan_Kouni-93">[93]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-interpreter_94-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-interpreter-94">[94]</a></sup> Although the shaman is often believed and trusted precisely because they "accommodate" to the beliefs of the community,<sup id="cite_ref-knowncult_122-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-knowncult-122">[122]</a></sup> several parts of the knowledge related to the local shamanhood consist of personal experiences of the shaman, or root in their family life,<sup id="cite_ref-drum-symbols_142-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-drum-symbols-142">[142]</a></sup> thus, those are lost with their death. Besides that, in many cultures, the entire traditional belief system has become endangered (often together with a partial or total <a href="/wiki/Language_shift" title="Language shift">language shift</a>), with the other people of the community remembering the associated beliefs and practices (or the language at all) grew old or died, many folklore memories songs, and texts were forgotten—which may threaten even such peoples who could preserve their isolation until the middle of the 20th century, like the <a href="/wiki/Nganasan_people" title="Nganasan people">Nganasan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a></sup>
</p><p>Some areas could enjoy a prolonged resistance due to their remoteness.
</p>
<ul><li>Variants of <a href="/wiki/Inuit_religion" title="Inuit religion">shamanism among Inuit</a> were once a widespread (and very diverse) phenomenon, but today is rarely practiced, as well as already having been in decline among many groups, even while the first major ethnological research was being done,<sup id="cite_ref-144" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a></sup> e.g. among Inuit, at the end of the 19th century, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sagloq&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sagloq (page does not exist)">Sagloq</a>, the last <a href="/wiki/Angakkuq" title="Angakkuq">angakkuq</a> who was believed to be able to travel to the sky and under the sea died—and many other former shamanic capacities were lost during that time as well, like ventriloquism and sleight of hand.<sup id="cite_ref-145" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a></sup></li>
<li>The isolated location of Nganasan people allowed shamanism to be a living phenomenon among them even at the beginning of the 20th century,<sup id="cite_ref-hop_146-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hop-146">[146]</a></sup> the last notable Nganasan shaman's ceremonies were recorded on film in the 1970s.<sup id="cite_ref-Hoppal_147-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hoppal-147">[147]</a></sup></li></ul>
<p>After exemplifying the general decline even in the most remote areas, there are revitalizations or tradition-preserving efforts as a response. Besides collecting the memories,<sup id="cite_ref-collect_148-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-collect-148">[148]</a></sup> there are also tradition-preserving<sup id="cite_ref-149" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a></sup> and even revitalization efforts,<sup id="cite_ref-150" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a></sup> led by authentic former shamans (for example among the Sakha people<sup id="cite_ref-authentic-revitalization-sakha_151-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-authentic-revitalization-sakha-151">[151]</a></sup> and Tuvans).<sup id="cite_ref-authentic-revitalization-tuva_136-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-authentic-revitalization-tuva-136">[136]</a></sup>
</p><p><a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans in the United States</a> do not call their traditional spiritual ways "shamanism". However, according to Richard L. Allen, research and policy analyst for the <a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Nation" title="Cherokee Nation">Cherokee Nation</a>, they are regularly overwhelmed with inquiries by and about <a href="/wiki/Plastic_shaman" title="Plastic shaman">fraudulent shamans</a>, aka ("plastic medicine people").<sup id="cite_ref-152" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a></sup> He adds, "One may assume that anyone claiming to be a Cherokee 'shaman, spiritual healer, or pipe-carrier', is equivalent to a modern day medicine show and snake-oil vendor."<sup id="cite_ref-RG_153-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RG-153">[153]</a></sup>
</p><p>There are also <a href="/wiki/Neoshamanism" title="Neoshamanism">neoshamanistic</a> movements, which usually differ from traditional shamanistic practice and beliefs in significant ways, and often have more connection to the <a href="/wiki/New_Age" title="New Age">New Age</a> communities than traditional cultures.<sup id="cite_ref-neoshaman_154-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-neoshaman-154">[154]</a></sup>
</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Regional_variations">Regional variations</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shamanism&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Regional variations">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_Shamanism_across_the_world.svg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Map_of_Shamanism_across_the_world.svg/220px-Map_of_Shamanism_across_the_world.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="109" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Map_of_Shamanism_across_the_world.svg/330px-Map_of_Shamanism_across_the_world.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Map_of_Shamanism_across_the_world.svg/440px-Map_of_Shamanism_across_the_world.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="4500" data-file-height="2234" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_Shamanism_across_the_world.svg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Map of <a href="/wiki/Regional_forms_of_shamanism" title="Regional forms of shamanism">shamanism across the world</a></div></div></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"/><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Regional_forms_of_shamanism" title="Regional forms of shamanism">Regional forms of shamanism</a></div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shamanism&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
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<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Divine_madness#Shamanism" title="Divine madness">Divine madness</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Dukun" title="Dukun">Dukun</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_ritual_mastery_traditions" title="Chinese ritual mastery traditions">Fashi</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Folk_healer" title="Folk healer">Folk healer</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Folk_magic" class="mw-redirect" title="Folk magic">Folk magic</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Itako" title="Itako">Itako</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Neuroanthropology" title="Neuroanthropology">Neuroanthropology</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Pawang" title="Pawang">Pawang</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Plastic_shaman" title="Plastic shaman">Plastic shaman</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_medicine" title="Prehistoric medicine">Prehistoric medicine</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Reincarnation#Ho-Chunk" title="Reincarnation">Reincarnation (Ho-Chunk)</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Sei%C3%B0r" title="Seiðr">Seiðr</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Shaman_King" title="Shaman King">Shaman King</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Soul_catcher" class="mw-redirect" title="Soul catcher">Soul catcher</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Spirit_spouse" title="Spirit spouse">Spirit spouse</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tangki" class="mw-redirect" title="Tangki">Tangki</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Tlamatini" title="Tlamatini">Tlamatini</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Zduha%C4%87" title="Zduhać">Zduhać</a></li></ul>
</div>
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shamanism&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: References">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Citations">Citations</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shamanism&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Citations">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
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<li id="cite_note-:0-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1067248974">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:linear-gradient(transparent,transparent),url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#3a3;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}</style><cite id="CITEREFSingh2018" class="citation journal cs1">Singh, Manvir (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/318255042">"The cultural evolution of shamanism"</a>. <i>Behavioral and Brain Sciences</i>. <b>41</b>: e66: 1–61. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0140525X17001893">10.1017/S0140525X17001893</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28679454">28679454</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:206264885">206264885</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Behavioral+and+Brain+Sciences&rft.atitle=The+cultural+evolution+of+shamanism&rft.volume=41&rft.pages=e66%3A+1-61&rft.date=2018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A206264885%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28679454&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0140525X17001893&rft.aulast=Singh&rft.aufirst=Manvir&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F318255042&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFMircea_EliadeVilmos_Diószegi2020" class="citation web cs1">Mircea Eliade; Vilmos Diószegi (May 12, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/shamanism">"Shamanism"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>. Encyclopædia Britannica<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 20,</span> 2020</span>. <q>Shamanism, religious phenomenon centred on the shaman, a person believed to achieve various powers through trance or ecstatic religious experience. Although shamans’ repertoires vary from one culture to the next, they are typically thought to have the ability to heal the sick, to communicate with the otherworld, and often to escort the souls of the dead to that otherworld.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Shamanism&rft.date=2020-05-12&rft.au=Mircea+Eliade&rft.au=Vilmos+Di%C3%B3szegi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2Fshamanism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFGredig2009" class="citation book cs1">Gredig, Florian (2009). <i>Finding New Cosmologies</i>. Berlin: Lit Verlag Dr. W. Hopf.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Finding+New+Cosmologies&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pub=Lit+Verlag+Dr.+W.+Hopf&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Gredig&rft.aufirst=Florian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Waveland_Press-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Waveland_Press_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Waveland_Press_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Waveland_Press_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Waveland_Press_4-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFKehoe2000" class="citation book cs1">Kehoe, Alice Beck (2000). <i>Shamans and religion : an anthropological exploration in critical thinking</i>. Prospect Heights, Ill.: Waveland Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57766-162-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57766-162-7"><bdi>978-1-57766-162-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Shamans+and+religion+%3A+an+anthropological+exploration+in+critical+thinking&rft.place=Prospect+Heights%2C+Ill.&rft.pub=Waveland+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-1-57766-162-7&rft.aulast=Kehoe&rft.aufirst=Alice+Beck&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Wernitznig2-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Wernitznig2_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wernitznig, Dagmar, <i>Europe's Indians, Indians in Europe: European Perceptions and Appropriations of Native American Cultures from Pocahontas to the Present</i>. University Press of America, 2007: p.132. "What happens further in the <a href="/wiki/Plastic_Shaman" class="mw-redirect" title="Plastic Shaman">Plastic Shaman</a>'s [fictitious] story is highly irritating from a perspective of cultural hegemony. The Injun elder does not only willingly share their spirituality with the white intruder but, in fact, must come to the conclusion that this intruder is as good an Indian as they are themselves. Regarding Indian spirituality, the Plastic Shaman even out-Indians the actual ones. The messianic element, which Plastic Shamanism financially draws on, is installed in the Yoda-like elder themselves. They are the ones - while melodramatically parting from their spiritual offshoot - who urge the Plastic Shaman to share their gift with the rest of the world. Thus Plastic Shamans wipe their hands clean of any megalomaniac or missionizing undertones. Licensed by the authority of an Indian elder, they now have every right to spread their wisdom, and if they make (quite more than) a buck with it, then so be it.--The neocolonial ideology attached to this scenario leaves less room for cynicism."}}</span>
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<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Hut01">Hutton 2001</a>. p. 32.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFHutton2001" class="citation book cs1">Hutton, Ronald (2001). <i>Shamans: Siberian Spirituality and the Western Imagination</i>. TPB. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/940167815">940167815</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Shamans%3A+Siberian+Spirituality+and+the+Western+Imagination&rft.pub=TPB&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F940167815&rft.aulast=Hutton&rft.aufirst=Ronald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Juha Janhunan, Siberian shamanistic terminology, <i>Mémoires de la Société Finno-Ougrienne</i> 1986, 194:97.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFCrossley1996" class="citation book cs1">Crossley, Pamela Kyle (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/manchus00cros"><i>The Manchus</i></a>. Blackwell Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55786-560-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55786-560-1"><bdi>978-1-55786-560-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Manchus&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishers&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-1-55786-560-1&rft.aulast=Crossley&rft.aufirst=Pamela+Kyle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmanchus00cros&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-cogmap-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cogmap_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cogmap_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cogmap_10-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cogmap_10-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cogmap_10-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Hoppál 2005: 15</span>
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<li id="cite_note-Diószegi_1962:13-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Diószegi_1962:13_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Diószegi_1962:13_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Diószegi 1962: 13</span>
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<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Januhnan, 1986: 98.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFEliade1989" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mircea_Eliade" title="Mircea Eliade">Eliade, Mircea</a> (1989). <i>Shamanism</i>. Arkana Books. p. 495.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Shamanism&rft.pages=495&rft.pub=Arkana+Books&rft.date=1989&rft.aulast=Eliade&rft.aufirst=Mircea&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Written before 1676, first printed in 1861; see <a href="#Hut01">Hutton 2001</a>. p. vii.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Hut01">Hutton 2001</a>, p. 32.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Adam Brand, <i>Driejaarige Reize naar China</i>, Amsterdam 1698; transl. <i>A Journal of an Ambassy</i>, London 1698; see Laufer B., "Origin of the Word Shaman," <i>American Anthropologist,</i> 19 (1917): 361–71 and Bremmer J., "Travelling souls? Greek shamanism reconsidered", in Bremmer J.N. (ed.), <i>The Rise and Fall of the Afterlife,</i> London: Routledge, 2002, pp. 7–40. (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://theol.eldoc.ub.rug.nl/FILES/root/2002/594/c3.pdf">PDF</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131202222218/http://theol.eldoc.ub.rug.nl/FILES/root/2002/594/c3.pdf">Archived</a> 2013-12-02 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>)</span>
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<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tomaskova, 2013, 76–78, 104–105.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFChadwickChadwick1968" class="citation book cs1">Chadwick, Hector Munro; Chadwick, Nora Kershaw (1968). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bgq0AAAAIAAJ"><i>The Growth of Literature</i></a>. The University Press. p. 13. <q>The terms <i>shaman</i> and the <a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russianised</a> feminine form <i>shamanka</i>, 'shamaness', '<a href="/wiki/Seeress" class="mw-redirect" title="Seeress">seeress</a>', are in general use to denote any persons of the Native professional class among the heathen <a href="/wiki/Siberians" title="Siberians">Siberians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tatars" title="Tatars">Tatars</a> generally, and there can be no doubt that they have come to be applied to a large number of different classes of people.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Growth+of+Literature&rft.pages=13&rft.pub=The+University+Press&rft.date=1968&rft.aulast=Chadwick&rft.aufirst=Hector+Munro&rft.au=Chadwick%2C+Nora+Kershaw&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dbgq0AAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFHoppál2005" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Hoppál, Mihály (2005). <i>Sámánok Eurázsiában</i> (in Hungarian). Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-963-05-8295-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-963-05-8295-7"><bdi>978-963-05-8295-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=S%C3%A1m%C3%A1nok+Eur%C3%A1zsi%C3%A1ban&rft.place=Budapest&rft.pub=Akad%C3%A9miai+Kiad%C3%B3&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-963-05-8295-7&rft.aulast=Hopp%C3%A1l&rft.aufirst=Mih%C3%A1ly&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span> pp. 77, 287; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFZnamensky2005" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Znamensky, Andrei A. (2005). "Az ősiség szépsége: altáji török sámánok a szibériai regionális gondolkodásban (1860–1920)". In Molnár, Ádám (ed.). <i>Csodaszarvas. Őstörténet, vallás és néphagyomány. Vol. I</i> (in Hungarian). Budapest: Molnár Kiadó. pp. 117–34. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-963-218-200-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-963-218-200-1"><bdi>978-963-218-200-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Az+%C5%91sis%C3%A9g+sz%C3%A9ps%C3%A9ge%3A+alt%C3%A1ji+t%C3%B6r%C3%B6k+s%C3%A1m%C3%A1nok+a+szib%C3%A9riai+region%C3%A1lis+gondolkod%C3%A1sban+%281860%E2%80%931920%29&rft.btitle=Csodaszarvas.+%C5%90st%C3%B6rt%C3%A9net%2C+vall%C3%A1s+%C3%A9s+n%C3%A9phagyom%C3%A1ny.+Vol.+I&rft.place=Budapest&rft.pages=117-34&rft.pub=Moln%C3%A1r+Kiad%C3%B3&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-963-218-200-1&rft.aulast=Znamensky&rft.aufirst=Andrei+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span>, p. 128</span>
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<li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Hut01">Hutton 2001</a>. pp. vii–viii.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130126071823/http://www.tengerism.org/table_of_contents.html">"Circle of Tengerism"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tengerism.org/table_of_contents.html">the original</a> on 2013-01-26.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Circle+of+Tengerism&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tengerism.org%2Ftable_of_contents.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-OED-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-OED_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-OED_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/shaman">"Definition of Shaman by Oxford Dictionaries"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Definition+of+Shaman+by+Oxford+Dictionaries&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fen.oxforddictionaries.com%2Fdefinition%2Fshaman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Juha Janhunen, Siberian shamanistic terminology, <i>Suomalais-ugrilaisen Seuran toimituksia/ Mémoires de la Société Finno-Ougrienne,</i> 1986, 194: 97–98</span>
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<li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFAlberts2015" class="citation book cs1">Alberts, Thomas (2015). <i>Shamanism, Discourse, Modernity</i>. Farnham: Ashgate. pp. 73–79. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4724-3986-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4724-3986-4"><bdi>978-1-4724-3986-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Shamanism%2C+Discourse%2C+Modernity&rft.place=Farnham&rft.pages=73-79&rft.pub=Ashgate&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-4724-3986-4&rft.aulast=Alberts&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hazlitt.net/feature/fatal-naming-rituals">"Fatal Naming Rituals"</a>. <i>Hazlitt</i>. 2018-07-19<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-03-05</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Hazlitt&rft.atitle=Fatal+Naming+Rituals&rft.date=2018-07-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhazlitt.net%2Ffeature%2Ffatal-naming-rituals&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Eli72-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Eli72_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eli72_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eli72_26-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Mircea Eliade, <i>Shamanism, Archaic Techniques of Ecstasy</i>, Bollingen Series LXXVI, Princeton University Press 1972, pp. 3–7.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-Fatal_Naming_Rituals-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Fatal_Naming_Rituals_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFBelcourt2018" class="citation web cs1">Belcourt, Billy-Ray (19 July 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hazlitt.net/feature/fatal-naming-rituals">"Fatal Naming Rituals"</a>. <i>Hazlitt</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 March</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Hazlitt&rft.atitle=Fatal+Naming+Rituals&rft.date=2018-07-19&rft.aulast=Belcourt&rft.aufirst=Billy-Ray&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhazlitt.net%2Ffeature%2Ffatal-naming-rituals&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-summer-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-summer_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-summer_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.folkscene.hu/magzines/shaman/coming.html">ISSR, 2001 Summer</a>, abstract online in 2nd half of 2nd paragraph</span>
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<li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hoppál & Szathmári & Takács 2006: 14</span>
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<li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hoppál 1998: 40</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vitebsky 1996: 11</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFRydving2011" class="citation journal cs1">Rydving, Hakan (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4000%2Femscat.1815">"Le chamanisme aujourd'hui: constructions et deconstructions d'une illusion scientifique"</a>. <i>Études Mongoles et Siberiennes, Centrasiatiques et Tibétaines</i>. <b>42</b> (42). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4000%2Femscat.1815">10.4000/emscat.1815</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%C3%89tudes+Mongoles+et+Siberiennes%2C+Centrasiatiques+et+Tib%C3%A9taines&rft.atitle=Le+chamanisme+aujourd%27hui%3A+constructions+et+deconstructions+d%27une+illusion+scientifique&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=42&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4000%2Femscat.1815&rft.aulast=Rydving&rft.aufirst=Hakan&rft_id=%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.4000%252Femscat.1815&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-:3-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:3_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFBumochir2014" class="citation journal cs1">Bumochir, Dulam (2014). "Institutionalization of Mongolian shamanism: from primitivism to civilization". <i>Asian Ethnicity</i>. <b>15</b> (4): 473–491. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14631369.2014.939331">10.1080/14631369.2014.939331</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145329835">145329835</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Asian+Ethnicity&rft.atitle=Institutionalization+of+Mongolian+shamanism%3A+from+primitivism+to+civilization&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=473-491&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F14631369.2014.939331&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145329835%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Bumochir&rft.aufirst=Dulam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFHangartner2011" class="citation book cs1">Hangartner, Judith (2011). <i>The Constitution and Contestation of Darhad Shamans' Power in Contemporary Mongolia</i>. Leiden: Global Oriental. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-906876-11-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-906876-11-1"><bdi>978-1-906876-11-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Constitution+and+Contestation+of+Darhad+Shamans%27+Power+in+Contemporary+Mongolia&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pub=Global+Oriental&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-906876-11-1&rft.aulast=Hangartner&rft.aufirst=Judith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-The_Invention_of_Shamanism_in_18t-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-The_Invention_of_Shamanism_in_18t_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFKollmar-Paulenz2012" class="citation journal cs1">Kollmar-Paulenz, Karenina (2012). "The Invention of "Shamanism" in 18th Century Mongolian Elite Discourse". <i>Rocznik Orientalistyczny</i>. <b>LXV</b> (1): 90–106.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Rocznik+Orientalistyczny&rft.atitle=The+Invention+of+%22Shamanism%22+in+18th+Century+Mongolian+Elite+Discourse&rft.volume=LXV&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=90-106&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Kollmar-Paulenz&rft.aufirst=Karenina&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-:1-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:1_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/shamanism">"Shamanism | religion"</a>. <i>Encyclopaedia Britannica</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-09-07</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Shamanism+%7C+religion&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2Fshamanism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/shamanism">"Definition of Shamanism"</a>. <i>Merriam-Webster.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-09-07</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Merriam-Webster.com&rft.atitle=Definition+of+Shamanism&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2Fshamanism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation cs2">"Using the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples in Litigation", <i>Reflections on the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples</i>, Hart Publishing, 2011, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5040%2F9781472565358.ch-005">10.5040/9781472565358.ch-005</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84113-878-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84113-878-7"><bdi>978-1-84113-878-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Using+the+United+Nations+Declaration+on+the+Rights+of+Indigenous+Peoples+in+Litigation&rft.btitle=Reflections+on+the+UN+Declaration+on+the+Rights+of+Indigenous+Peoples&rft.pub=Hart+Publishing&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5040%2F9781472565358.ch-005&rft.isbn=978-1-84113-878-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFOostenLaugrandRemie2006" class="citation journal cs1">Oosten, Jarich; Laugrand, Frédéric; Remie, Cornelius (Summer 2006). "Perceptions of Decline: Inuit Shamanism in the Canadian Arctic". <i>Ethnohistory</i>. <b>53</b> (3): 445–447. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1215%2F00141801-2006-001">10.1215/00141801-2006-001</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ethnohistory&rft.atitle=Perceptions+of+Decline%3A+Inuit+Shamanism+in+the+Canadian+Arctic&rft.ssn=summer&rft.volume=53&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=445-447&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1215%2F00141801-2006-001&rft.aulast=Oosten&rft.aufirst=Jarich&rft.au=Laugrand%2C+Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric&rft.au=Remie%2C+Cornelius&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-:4-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:4_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lonelyplanet.com/mongolia/travel-tips-and-articles/mongolias-lost-secrets-in-pictures-the-last-tuvan-shaman/40625c8c-8a11-5710-a052-1479d2767e50">"Mongolia's Lost Secrets in Pictures: The Last Tuvan Shaman"</a>. <i>Lonely Planet</i>. 2014-08-21<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-10-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Lonely+Planet&rft.atitle=Mongolia%27s+Lost+Secrets+in+Pictures%3A+The+Last+Tuvan+Shaman&rft.date=2014-08-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.lonelyplanet.com%2Fmongolia%2Ftravel-tips-and-articles%2Fmongolias-lost-secrets-in-pictures-the-last-tuvan-shaman%2F40625c8c-8a11-5710-a052-1479d2767e50&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFJardineKupfer" class="citation news cs1">Jardine, Bradley; Kupfer, Matthew. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://thediplomat.com/2016/10/welcome-to-the-tuva-republic/">"Welcome to the Tuva Republic"</a>. <i>The Diplomat</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-10-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Diplomat&rft.atitle=Welcome+to+the+Tuva+Republic&rft.aulast=Jardine&rft.aufirst=Bradley&rft.au=Kupfer%2C+Matthew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fthediplomat.com%2F2016%2F10%2Fwelcome-to-the-tuva-republic%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFKING,_THOMAS.2018" class="citation book cs1">KING, THOMAS. (2018). <i>INCONVENIENT INDIAN : a curious account of native people in north america</i>. UNIV OF MINNESOTA Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5179-0446-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5179-0446-3"><bdi>978-1-5179-0446-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/1007305354">1007305354</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=INCONVENIENT+INDIAN+%3A+a+curious+account+of+native+people+in+north+america.&rft.pub=UNIV+OF+MINNESOTA+Press&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1007305354&rft.isbn=978-1-5179-0446-3&rft.au=KING%2C+THOMAS.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFEllingson2001" class="citation cs2">Ellingson, Ter (2001-01-16), "The Ecologically Noble Savage", <i>The Myth of the Noble Savage</i>, University of California Press, pp. 342–358, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Fcalifornia%2F9780520222687.003.0023">10.1525/california/9780520222687.003.0023</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-22268-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-22268-7"><bdi>978-0-520-22268-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Ecologically+Noble+Savage&rft.btitle=The+Myth+of+the+Noble+Savage&rft.pages=342-358&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2001-01-16&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2Fcalifornia%2F9780520222687.003.0023&rft.isbn=978-0-520-22268-7&rft.aulast=Ellingson&rft.aufirst=Ter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Peru-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Peru_44-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Peru_44-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Peru_44-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFSalak" class="citation web cs1">Salak, Kira. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kirasalak.com/Peru.html">"Hell and Back"</a>. National Geographic Adventure.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Hell+and+Back&rft.pub=National+Geographic+Adventure&rft.aulast=Salak&rft.aufirst=Kira&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.kirasalak.com%2FPeru.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFWilbertVidal2004" class="citation book cs1">Wilbert, Johannes; Vidal, Silvia M. (2004). Whitehead, Neil L.; Wright, Robin (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://semanticscholar.org/paper/55d71ebd842bf52df8f90733c7fbba4d9cc4a9f7"><i>In Darkness and Secrecy: The Anthropology of Assault Sorcery and Witchcraft in Amazonia</i></a>. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1215%2F9780822385837">10.1215/9780822385837</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-3333-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-3333-3"><bdi>978-0-8223-3333-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:146752685">146752685</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+Darkness+and+Secrecy%3A+The+Anthropology+of+Assault+Sorcery+and+Witchcraft+in+Amazonia&rft.place=Durham%2C+NC&rft.pub=Duke+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A146752685%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1215%2F9780822385837&rft.isbn=978-0-8223-3333-3&rft.aulast=Wilbert&rft.aufirst=Johannes&rft.au=Vidal%2C+Silvia+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsemanticscholar.org%2Fpaper%2F55d71ebd842bf52df8f90733c7fbba4d9cc4a9f7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-all-soul-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-all-soul_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Mer85">Merkur 1985</a>: 4</span>
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<li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Vit96">Vitebsky 1996</a>: 11–14, 107</span>
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<li id="cite_note-soulsham-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-soulsham_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Hop05">Hoppál 2005</a>: 27, 30, 36</span>
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<li id="cite_note-sem-shamheal-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sem-shamheal_49-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sem-shamheal_49-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFSem" class="citation web cs1">Sem, Tatyana. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.museum.state.il.us/exhibits/changing/journey/healing.html">"Shamanic Healing Rituals"</a>. Russian Museum of Ethnography.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Shamanic+Healing+Rituals&rft.pub=Russian+Museum+of+Ethnography&rft.aulast=Sem&rft.aufirst=Tatyana&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.museum.state.il.us%2Fexhibits%2Fchanging%2Fjourney%2Fhealing.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-resoul-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-resoul_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hoppál 2005: 27</span>
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<li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kleivan & Sonne 1985: 7, 19–21</span>
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<li id="cite_note-Gab-KarEszk-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gab-KarEszk_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gabus, Jean: A karibu eszkimók. Gondolat Kiadó, Budapest, 1970. (Hungarian translation of the original: Vie et coutumes des Esquimaux Caribous, Libraire Payot Lausanne, 1944.) It describes the life of Caribou Eskimo groups.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-:2-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_53-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_53-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFSwancuttMazard2018" class="citation book cs1">Swancutt, Katherine; Mazard, Mireille (2018). <i>Animism beyond the Soul: Ontology, Reflexivity, and the Making of Anthropological Knowledge</i>. New York: Berghahn Books. p. 102. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78533-865-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78533-865-6"><bdi>978-1-78533-865-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Animism+beyond+the+Soul%3A+Ontology%2C+Reflexivity%2C+and+the+Making+of+Anthropological+Knowledge&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=102&rft.pub=Berghahn+Books&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-1-78533-865-6&rft.aulast=Swancutt&rft.aufirst=Katherine&rft.au=Mazard%2C+Mireille&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Hop07c">Hoppál 2007c</a>: 18</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-singtellplay-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-singtellplay_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hoppál 2005: 99</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFMcCoy2018" class="citation book cs1">McCoy, V. R. (2018-03-30). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jVFiDwAAQBAJ&q=shaman+axis+mundi&pg=PT37"><i>Shaman-the Dawn's People</i></a>. BookBaby. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-7321874-0-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-7321874-0-5"><bdi>978-1-7321874-0-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Shaman-the+Dawn%27s+People&rft.pub=BookBaby&rft.date=2018-03-30&rft.isbn=978-1-7321874-0-5&rft.aulast=McCoy&rft.aufirst=V.+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjVFiDwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dshaman%2Baxis%2Bmundi%26pg%3DPT37&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFBuenaflor2019" class="citation book cs1">Buenaflor, Erika (2019-05-28). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FuFsDwAAQBAJ&q=shaman+axis+mundi+entheogen&pg=PT61"><i>Curanderismo Soul Retrieval: Ancient Shamanic Wisdom to Restore the Sacred Energy of the Soul</i></a>. Simon and Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59143-341-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59143-341-5"><bdi>978-1-59143-341-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Curanderismo+Soul+Retrieval%3A+Ancient+Shamanic+Wisdom+to+Restore+the+Sacred+Energy+of+the+Soul&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=2019-05-28&rft.isbn=978-1-59143-341-5&rft.aulast=Buenaflor&rft.aufirst=Erika&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFuFsDwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dshaman%2Baxis%2Bmundi%2Bentheogen%26pg%3DPT61&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mescaline.com/sanpedro/">"A Brief History of the San Pedro Cactus"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 June</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+Brief+History+of+the+San+Pedro+Cactus&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mescaline.com%2Fsanpedro%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFTerry,_M.2017" class="citation journal cs1">Terry, M. (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/151962/121515326">"<i>Lophophora williamsii</i>"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/IUCN_Red_List" title="IUCN Red List">IUCN Red List of Threatened Species</a></i>. <b>2017</b>: e.T151962A121515326. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2305%2FIUCN.UK.2017-3.RLTS.T151962A121515326.en">10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-3.RLTS.T151962A121515326.en</a></span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 November</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IUCN+Red+List+of+Threatened+Species&rft.atitle=Lophophora+williamsii&rft.volume=2017&rft.pages=e.T151962A121515326&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2305%2FIUCN.UK.2017-3.RLTS.T151962A121515326.en&rft.au=Terry%2C+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iucnredlist.org%2Fspecies%2F151962%2F121515326&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/entheogen"><i>Entheogen</i></a>, [dictionary.com]<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-03-13</span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Entheogen&rft.pub=%5Bdictionary.com%5D&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdictionary.reference.com%2Fbrowse%2Fentheogen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFSouzaAlbuquerqueMonteiroAmorim2008" class="citation journal cs1">Souza, Rafael Sampaio Octaviano de; Albuquerque, Ulysses Paulino de; Monteiro, Júlio Marcelino; Amorim, Elba Lúcia Cavalcanti de (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1590%2FS1516-89132008000500010">"Brazilian Archives of Biology and Technology – Jurema-Preta (Mimosa tenuiflora [Willd.] Poir.): a review of its traditional use, phytochemistry and pharmacology"</a>. <i>Brazilian Archives of Biology and Technology</i>. <b>51</b> (5): 937–947. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="cs1-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1590%2FS1516-89132008000500010">10.1590/S1516-89132008000500010</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Brazilian+Archives+of+Biology+and+Technology&rft.atitle=Brazilian+Archives+of+Biology+and+Technology+%E2%80%93+Jurema-Preta+%28Mimosa+tenuiflora+%5BWilld.%5D+Poir.%29%3A+a+review+of+its+traditional+use%2C+phytochemistry+and+pharmacology&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=937-947&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1590%2FS1516-89132008000500010&rft.aulast=Souza&rft.aufirst=Rafael+Sampaio+Octaviano+de&rft.au=Albuquerque%2C+Ulysses+Paulino+de&rft.au=Monteiro%2C+J%C3%BAlio+Marcelino&rft.au=Amorim%2C+Elba+L%C3%BAcia+Cavalcanti+de&rft_id=%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1590%252FS1516-89132008000500010&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFVossPrue2014" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Voss, Richard W.; Prue (2014). "Peyote Religion". In Leeming, David A. (ed.). <i>Encyclopedia of Psychology and Religion</i>. Boston, MA: Springer. pp. 1330–33. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4614-6086-2_506">10.1007/978-1-4614-6086-2_506</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4614-6085-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4614-6085-5"><bdi>978-1-4614-6085-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Peyote+Religion&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Psychology+and+Religion&rft.place=Boston%2C+MA&rft.pages=1330-33&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-1-4614-6086-2_506&rft.isbn=978-1-4614-6085-5&rft.aulast=Voss&rft.aufirst=Richard+W.&rft.au=Prue&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFGuzmán2009" class="citation cs2">Guzmán, Gastón (2009), "The hallucinogenic mushrooms: diversity, traditions, use and abuse with special reference to the genus Psilocybe", in Misra, J.K.; Deshmukh, S.K. (eds.), <i>Fungi from different environments</i>, Enfield, NH: Science Publishers, pp. 256–77, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57808-578-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57808-578-1"><bdi>978-1-57808-578-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+hallucinogenic+mushrooms%3A+diversity%2C+traditions%2C+use+and+abuse+with+special+reference+to+the+genus+Psilocybe&rft.btitle=Fungi+from+different+environments&rft.place=Enfield%2C+NH&rft.pages=256-77&rft.pub=Science+Publishers&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-57808-578-1&rft.aulast=Guzm%C3%A1n&rft.aufirst=Gast%C3%B3n&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFWilbert1987" class="citation book cs1">Wilbert, Johannes (1987). <span class="cs1-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/tobaccoshamanism0000wilb"><i>Tobacco and Shamanism in South America</i></a></span>. New Haven: Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-05790-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-05790-4"><bdi>978-0-300-05790-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tobacco+and+Shamanism+in+South+America&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-300-05790-4&rft.aulast=Wilbert&rft.aufirst=Johannes&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftobaccoshamanism0000wilb&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFMcClain2016" class="citation thesis cs1">McClain, Matthew Sean (29 July 2016). <i>Herb & Shaman: Recreating the Cannabis Mythos</i> (PhD). Pacifica Graduate Institute. <q>This study considers the archetypal role of Cannabis in many agricultural rites and shamanic traditions.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Herb+%26+Shaman%3A+Recreating+the+Cannabis+Mythos&rft.inst=Pacifica+Graduate+Institute&rft.date=2016-07-29&rft.aulast=McClain&rft.aufirst=Matthew+Sean&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFLabateCavnar2014" class="citation book cs1">Labate, Beatriz Caiuby; Cavnar, Clancy, eds. (2014). <i>Ayahuasca Shamanism in the Amazon and Beyond</i>. Oxford ritual studies. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-934119-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-934119-1"><bdi>978-0-19-934119-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ayahuasca+Shamanism+in+the+Amazon+and+Beyond&rft.place=Oxford&rft.series=Oxford+ritual+studies&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-19-934119-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFDalgamo2007" class="citation journal cs1">Dalgamo, Phil (June 2007). "Subjective Effects of Salvia Divinorum". <i>Journal of Psychoactive Drugs</i>. <b>39</b> (2): 143–49. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F02791072.2007.10399872">10.1080/02791072.2007.10399872</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17703708">17703708</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:40477640">40477640</a>. <q>Mazatec curanderos use Salvia for divinatory rituals and healing ceremonies.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Psychoactive+Drugs&rft.atitle=Subjective+Effects+of+Salvia+Divinorum&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=143-49&rft.date=2007-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A40477640%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17703708&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F02791072.2007.10399872&rft.aulast=Dalgamo&rft.aufirst=Phil&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFMahopUdenAsahaNdam2004" class="citation cs2">Mahop, Tonye; Uden, Alex; Asaha, Stella; Ndam, Nouhou; Sunderland, Terry (May 2004), "Iboga (Tabernathe iboga)", in Clark, Laurie E.; Sunderland, Terry C.H. (eds.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNADA851.pdf#page=178"><i>The Key Non-Timber Forest Products of Central Africa: State of the Knowledge</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, Technical Paper no. 22; SD Publication Series, Office of Sustainable Development, Bureau for Africa, U.S. Agency for International Development, p. 166<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 January</span> 2018</span>, <q>The use of T. iboga in Gabonese religious ceremonies has been recorded from an early date.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Iboga+%28Tabernathe+iboga%29&rft.btitle=The+Key+Non-Timber+Forest+Products+of+Central+Africa%3A+State+of+the+Knowledge&rft.series=Technical+Paper+no.+22%3B+SD+Publication+Series&rft.pages=166&rft.pub=Office+of+Sustainable+Development%2C+Bureau+for+Africa%2C+U.S.+Agency+for+International+Development&rft.date=2004-05&rft.aulast=Mahop&rft.aufirst=Tonye&rft.au=Uden%2C+Alex&rft.au=Asaha%2C+Stella&rft.au=Ndam%2C+Nouhou&rft.au=Sunderland%2C+Terry&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpdf.usaid.gov%2Fpdf_docs%2FPNADA851.pdf%23page%3D178&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFPrayagMuraHallFontaine2015" class="citation journal cs1">Prayag, Girish; Mura, Paolo; Hall, Michael; Fontaine, Julien (May 2015). "Drug or spirituality seekers? Consuming ayahuasca". <i>Annals of Tourism Research</i>. <b>52</b>: 175–177. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.annals.2015.03.008">10.1016/j.annals.2015.03.008</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0160-7383">0160-7383</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annals+of+Tourism+Research&rft.atitle=Drug+or+spirituality+seekers%3F+Consuming+ayahuasca&rft.volume=52&rft.pages=175-177&rft.date=2015-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.annals.2015.03.008&rft.issn=0160-7383&rft.aulast=Prayag&rft.aufirst=Girish&rft.au=Mura%2C+Paolo&rft.au=Hall%2C+Michael&rft.au=Fontaine%2C+Julien&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-onom-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-onom_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150402105719/http://dasa.baua.de/nn_35984/sid_2C8A99B3F31A58C62BBE3312986DC568/nsc_true/de/Presse/Pressematerialien/Sonderausstellung_20Macht_20Musik/Schamanen-Musik.pdf">"healthCheck"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dasa.baua.de/nn_35984/sid_2C8A99B3F31A58C62BBE3312986DC568/nsc_true/de/Presse/Pressematerialien/Sonderausstellung_20Macht_20Musik/Schamanen-Musik.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2 April 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 June</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=healthCheck&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdasa.baua.de%2Fnn_35984%2Fsid_2C8A99B3F31A58C62BBE3312986DC568%2Fnsc_true%2Fde%2FPresse%2FPressematerialien%2FSonderausstellung_20Macht_20Musik%2FSchamanen-Musik.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-natt-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-natt_71-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-natt_71-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Nattiez: 5</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-desch-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-desch_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mustrad.org.uk/articles/inuit.htm">"Inuit Throat-Singing"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 June</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Inuit+Throat-Singing&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mustrad.org.uk%2Farticles%2Finuit.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Turner et al., p. 440</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#NoSh04">Noll & Shi 2004</a> (avail. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090326115313/http://www.desales.edu/assets/desales/SocScience/Oroqen_shaman_FSSForumAug07.pdf">online: Internet Archive copy</a>)</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFHalifax1982" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Joan_Halifax" title="Joan Halifax">Halifax, Joan</a> (1982). <i>Shaman: The Wounded Healer</i>. London: <a href="/wiki/Thames_%26_Hudson" title="Thames & Hudson">Thames & Hudson</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-500-81029-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-500-81029-3"><bdi>978-0-500-81029-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/8800269">8800269</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Shaman%3A+The+Wounded+Healer&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Thames+%26+Hudson&rft.date=1982&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F8800269&rft.isbn=978-0-500-81029-3&rft.aulast=Halifax&rft.aufirst=Joan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Barüske 1969: 24, 50–51</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kleivan & Sonne 1985: 25</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-cole-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-cole_78-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFFay-Cooper_Cole_&_Albert_Gale1922" class="citation journal cs1">Fay-Cooper Cole & Albert Gale (1922). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/tinguiansocialre142cole">"The Tinguian; Social, Religious, and Economic life of a Philippine tribe"</a>. <i>Field Museum of Natural History: Anthropological Series</i>. <b>14</b> (2): <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/tinguiansocialre142cole/page/235">235</a>–493.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Field+Museum+of+Natural+History%3A+Anthropological+Series&rft.atitle=The+Tinguian%3B+Social%2C+Religious%2C+and+Economic+life+of+a+Philippine+tribe&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=235-493&rft.date=1922&rft.au=Fay-Cooper+Cole+%26+Albert+Gale&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftinguiansocialre142cole&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-mediator-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-mediator_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hoppál 2005: 45</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-mediator2-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-mediator2_80-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mediator2_80-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Boglár 2001: 24</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Hoppal_a-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hoppal_a_81-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hoppál 2005: 94</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vitebsky 1996: 46</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFIngerman2004" class="citation book cs1">Ingerman, Sandra (2004). <i>Shamanic Journeying: A Beginner's Guide</i>. Sounds True. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59179-943-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59179-943-6"><bdi>978-1-59179-943-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Shamanic+Journeying%3A+A+Beginner%27s+Guide&rft.pub=Sounds+True&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-59179-943-6&rft.aulast=Ingerman&rft.aufirst=Sandra&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-multfunc-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-multfunc_84-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-multfunc_84-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Hoppál 2005: 25</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hoppál 2005: 27–28</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hoppál 2005: 28–33</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-memory-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-memory_87-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hoppál 2005: 37</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hoppál 2005: 34–35</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-psychopomp-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-psychopomp_89-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hoppál 2005: 36</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hoppál 2005: 61–64</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hoppál 2005: 87–95</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sacred-texts.com/sha/sis/sis05.htm">"Shamanism in Siberia: Part III. Religion: Chapter IX. Types of Shamans"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 June</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Shamanism+in+Siberia%3A+Part+III.+Religion%3A+Chapter+IX.+Types+of+Shamans&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sacred-texts.com%2Fsha%2Fsis%2Fsis05.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Guan_Kouni-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Guan_Kouni_93-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Guan_Kouni_93-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#NoSh04">Noll & Shi 2004</a>: 10, footnote 10 (see <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090326115313/http://www.desales.edu/assets/desales/SocScience/Oroqen_shaman_FSSForumAug07.pdf">online: Internet Archive copy</a>)</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-interpreter-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-interpreter_94-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-interpreter_94-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#NoSh04">Noll & Shi 2004</a>: 8–9 (see <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090326115313/http://www.desales.edu/assets/desales/SocScience/Oroqen_shaman_FSSForumAug07.pdf">online: Internet Archive copy</a>)</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-eco-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-eco_95-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-eco_95-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Reichel-Dolmatoff 1997</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vitebsky 1996: 107</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-ecopia-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ecopia_97-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Boglár 2001: 26</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Merkur 1985: 5</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vitebsky 1996: 108</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kleivan & Sonne: 27–28</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-mshare-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-mshare_101-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mshare_101-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Merkur 1985: 3</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFOelschlaegel2016" class="citation book cs1">Oelschlaegel, Anett C. (2016). <i>Plural World Interpretations</i>. Berlin: LIT Verlag Münster. p. 206. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-643-90788-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-643-90788-2"><bdi>978-3-643-90788-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Plural+World+Interpretations&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pages=206&rft.pub=LIT+Verlag+M%C3%BCnster&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-3-643-90788-2&rft.aulast=Oelschlaegel&rft.aufirst=Anett+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-failed-shaman-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-failed-shaman_103-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kleivan & Sonne 1985: 24</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFWinkelman2000" class="citation book cs1">Winkelman, Michael (2000). <i>Shamanism : the neural ecology of consciousness and healing</i>. Bergin & Garvey. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89789-704-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-89789-704-4"><bdi>978-0-89789-704-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/oclc/1026223037">1026223037</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Shamanism+%3A+the+neural+ecology+of+consciousness+and+healing&rft.pub=Bergin+%26+Garvey&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1026223037&rft.isbn=978-0-89789-704-4&rft.aulast=Winkelman&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFWinkelman" class="citation journal cs1">Winkelman, Michael. "Shamanism and cognitive evolution". <i>Cambridge Archaeological Journal</i>. <b>12</b> (1): 71–101. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0959774302000045">10.1017/S0959774302000045</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162355879">162355879</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cambridge+Archaeological+Journal&rft.atitle=Shamanism+and+cognitive+evolution&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=71-101&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0959774302000045&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162355879%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Winkelman&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFWinkelman1986" class="citation journal cs1">Winkelman, Michael (1986). "Trance states: A theoretical model and cross-cultural analysis". <i>Ethos</i>. <b>14</b> (2): 174–203. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Feth.1986.14.2.02a00040">10.1525/eth.1986.14.2.02a00040</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ethos&rft.atitle=Trance+states%3A+A+theoretical+model+and+cross-cultural+analysis&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=174-203&rft.date=1986&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2Feth.1986.14.2.02a00040&rft.aulast=Winkelman&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFReuell2018" class="citation web cs1">Reuell, Peter (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2018/12/study-suggests-shamans-acted-as-the-first-professional-class-in-human-society/">"The mystery of the medicine man"</a>. <i>Harvard Gazette</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Harvard+Gazette&rft.atitle=The+mystery+of+the+medicine+man&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Reuell&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnews.harvard.edu%2Fgazette%2Fstory%2F2018%2F12%2Fstudy-suggests-shamans-acted-as-the-first-professional-class-in-human-society%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFSingh2018" class="citation journal cs1">Singh, Manvir (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/324252150">"Why is there shamanism? Developing the cultural evolutionary theory and addressing alternative accounts"</a>. <i>Behavioral and Brain Sciences</i>. <b>41</b>: e92. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0140525X17002230">10.1017/S0140525X17002230</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31064458">31064458</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:147706275">147706275</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Behavioral+and+Brain+Sciences&rft.atitle=Why+is+there+shamanism%3F+Developing+the+cultural+evolutionary+theory+and+addressing+alternative+accounts&rft.volume=41&rft.pages=e92&rft.date=2018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A147706275%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31064458&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0140525X17002230&rft.aulast=Singh&rft.aufirst=Manvir&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F324252150&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFSingh" class="citation web cs1">Singh, Manvir. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://theconversation.com/modern-shamans-financial-managers-political-pundits-and-others-who-help-tame-lifes-uncertainty-113302">"Modern shamans: Financial managers, political pundits and others who help tame life's uncertainty"</a>. <i>The Conversation</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-05-02</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Conversation&rft.atitle=Modern+shamans%3A+Financial+managers%2C+political+pundits+and+others+who+help+tame+life%27s+uncertainty&rft.aulast=Singh&rft.aufirst=Manvir&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftheconversation.com%2Fmodern-shamans-financial-managers-political-pundits-and-others-who-help-tame-lifes-uncertainty-113302&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFBoyer2018" class="citation journal cs1">Boyer, Pascal (2018). "Missing links: The psychology and epidemiology of shamanistic beliefs". <i>Behavioral and Brain Sciences</i>. <b>41</b>: e71. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0140525X17002023">10.1017/S0140525X17002023</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31064451">31064451</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:147706563">147706563</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Behavioral+and+Brain+Sciences&rft.atitle=Missing+links%3A+The+psychology+and+epidemiology+of+shamanistic+beliefs&rft.volume=41&rft.pages=e71&rft.date=2018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A147706563%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31064451&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0140525X17002023&rft.aulast=Boyer&rft.aufirst=Pascal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFHumphrey2018" class="citation journal cs1">Humphrey, Nicholas (2018). "Shamans as healers: When magical structure becomes practical function". <i>Behavioral and Brain Sciences</i>. <b>41</b>: e77. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0140525X17002084">10.1017/S0140525X17002084</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31064454">31064454</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:147706046">147706046</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Behavioral+and+Brain+Sciences&rft.atitle=Shamans+as+healers%3A+When+magical+structure+becomes+practical+function&rft.volume=41&rft.pages=e77&rft.date=2018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A147706046%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31064454&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0140525X17002084&rft.aulast=Humphrey&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFWatson-JonesLegare2018" class="citation journal cs1">Watson-Jones, Rachel E.; Legare (2018). "The social functions of shamanism". <i>Behavioral and Brain Sciences</i>. <b>41</b>: e88. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0140525X17002199">10.1017/S0140525X17002199</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31064460">31064460</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:147706978">147706978</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Behavioral+and+Brain+Sciences&rft.atitle=The+social+functions+of+shamanism&rft.volume=41&rft.pages=e88&rft.date=2018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A147706978%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31064460&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0140525X17002199&rft.aulast=Watson-Jones&rft.aufirst=Rachel+E.&rft.au=Legare&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David Lewis-Williams, <i>The Mind in the Cave: Consciousness and the Origins of Art</i> (London: Thames and Hudson, 2002)</span>
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<li id="cite_note-coop-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-coop_114-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Gerardo_Reichel-Dolmatoff" title="Gerardo Reichel-Dolmatoff">Gerardo Reichel-Dolmatoff</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20041027152526/http://www.theecologist.info/page9.html">A View from the Headwaters</a>. The Ecologist, Vol. 29 No. 4, July 1999.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFJean_Clottes" class="citation web cs1">Jean Clottes. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080430093540/http://www.bradshawfoundation.com/clottes/page7.php">"Shamanism in Prehistory"</a>. <i>Bradshaw foundation</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bradshawfoundation.com/clottes/page7.php">the original</a> on 2008-04-30<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-03-11</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Bradshaw+foundation&rft.atitle=Shamanism+in+Prehistory&rft.au=Jean+Clottes&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bradshawfoundation.com%2Fclottes%2Fpage7.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-Narr-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Narr_116-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Narr_116-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFKarl_J._Narr" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Karl J. Narr. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080409074119/http://concise.britannica.com/oscar/print?articleId=109434&fullArticle=true&tocId=52333">"Prehistoric religion"</a>. <i>Britannica online encyclopedia 2008</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://concise.britannica.com/oscar/print?articleId=109434&fullArticle=true&tocId=52333">the original</a> on 2008-04-09<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-03-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Prehistoric+religion&rft.btitle=Britannica+online+encyclopedia+2008&rft.au=Karl+J.+Narr&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fconcise.britannica.com%2Foscar%2Fprint%3FarticleId%3D109434%26fullArticle%3Dtrue%26tocId%3D52333&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tedlock, Barbara. 2005. The Woman in the Shaman's Body: Reclaiming the Feminine in Religion and Medicine. New York: Bantam</span>
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<li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Witzel, 2011.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Earliest known shaman grave site found: study", reported by <a href="/wiki/Reuters" title="Reuters">Reuters</a> via <a href="/wiki/Yahoo!_News" title="Yahoo! News">Yahoo! News</a>, November 4, 2008, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.webcitation.org/5c5MCHK7R?url=http://news.yahoo.com/s/nm/20081104/sc_nm/us_shaman_israel/print">archived.</a> see <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</i>.</span>
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<li id="cite_note-Hoppál_2005:14-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hoppál_2005:14_120-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hoppál_2005:14_120-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Hoppál 2005: 14</span>
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<li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Shamanism#Pen95" title="Shamanism">Pentikäinen 1995</a>: 270</span>
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<li id="cite_note-knowncult-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-knowncult_122-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-knowncult_122-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-knowncult_122-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Hoppál 2005: 25–26,43</span>
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<li id="cite_note-etym2-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-etym2_123-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hoppál 2004: 14</span>
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<li id="cite_note-semi-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-semi_124-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hoppál 2005: 13–15, 58, 197</span>
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<li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hoppál 2006a: 11</span>
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<li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hoppál 2006b: 175</span>
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<li id="cite_note-semiotics_of_shamanism-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-semiotics_of_shamanism_127-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Shamanism#Hop07c" title="Shamanism">Hoppál 2007c</a>: 24–25</span>
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<li id="cite_note-hop-natworsib-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-hop-natworsib_128-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-hop-natworsib_128-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Hoppál, Mihály: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.folklore.ee/folklore/vol4/hoppal.htm">Nature worship in Siberian shamanism</a></span>
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<li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Shamanism#Hop07b" title="Shamanism">Hoppál 2007b</a>: 12–13</span>
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<li id="cite_note-Hoppál_2007c_25-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hoppál_2007c_25_130-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hoppál_2007c_25_130-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hoppál_2007c_25_130-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Shamanism#Hop07c" title="Shamanism">Hoppál 2007c</a>: 25</span>
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<li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Shamanism#Pen95" title="Shamanism">Pentikäinen 1995</a>: 270–71</span>
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<li id="cite_note-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Merkur 1985: v</span>
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<li id="cite_note-ethnohermeneutics-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ethnohermeneutics_133-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Shamanism#Hop07b" title="Shamanism">Hoppál 2007b</a>: 13</span>
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<li id="cite_note-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFOostenLaugrandRemie2006" class="citation journal cs1">Oosten, Jarich; Laugrand, Frederic; Remie, Cornelius (2006). "Perceptions of Decline: Inuit Shamanism in the Canadian Arctic". <i>American Society for Ethnohistory</i>. <b>53</b> (3): 445–77. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1215%2F00141801-2006-001">10.1215/00141801-2006-001</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Society+for+Ethnohistory&rft.atitle=Perceptions+of+Decline%3A+Inuit+Shamanism+in+the+Canadian+Arctic&rft.volume=53&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=445-77&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1215%2F00141801-2006-001&rft.aulast=Oosten&rft.aufirst=Jarich&rft.au=Laugrand%2C+Frederic&rft.au=Remie%2C+Cornelius&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
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<li id="cite_note-tuva-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-tuva_135-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hoppál 2005: 117</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-authentic-revitalization-tuva-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-authentic-revitalization-tuva_136-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-authentic-revitalization-tuva_136-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Hoppál 2005: 259</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Boglár 2001: 19–20</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-shamed-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-shamed_138-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Diószegi 1960: 37–39</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Kara-Gurgan-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kara-Gurgan_139-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Eli01">Eliade 2001</a>: 76 (Chpt 3 about obtaining shamanic capabilities)</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-flatland-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-flatland_140-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Omnividence: A word created by Edwin A. Abbott in his book titled <a href="/wiki/Flatland" title="Flatland">Flatland</a></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-deter-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-deter_141-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Diószegi 1960: 88–89</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-drum-symbols-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-drum-symbols_142-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hoppál 2005: 224</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nagy 1998: 232</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Merkur 1985: 132</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Merkur 1985: 134</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-hop-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-hop_146-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hoppál 2005: 92</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-Hoppal-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hoppal_147-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hoppál 1994: 62</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-collect-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-collect_148-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hoppál 2005: 88</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hoppál 2005: 93</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hoppál 2005: 111, 117–19, 128, 132, 133–34, 252–63</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-authentic-revitalization-sakha-151"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-authentic-revitalization-sakha_151-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hoppál 2005: 257–58</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hagan, Helene E. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sonomacountyfreepress.com/features/spirg-hagan.html">"The Plastic Medicine People Circle."</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130305155048/http://www.sonomacountyfreepress.com/features/spirg-hagan.html">Archived</a> 2013-03-05 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <i>Sonoma Free County Press.</i> Accessed 31 Jan 2013.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-RG-153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-RG_153-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thepeoplespaths.net/Articles2001/RLAllen-CherokeeStatement-Shamans.htm">"Pseudo Shamans Cherokee Statement"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-06-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Pseudo+Shamans+Cherokee+Statement&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thepeoplespaths.net%2FArticles2001%2FRLAllen-CherokeeStatement-Shamans.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-neoshaman-154"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-neoshaman_154-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vitebsky 1996: 150–53</span>
</li>
</ol></div></div>
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Sources">Sources</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shamanism&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Sources">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3>
<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1054258005">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="refbegin" style="">
<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFBarüske1969" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Barüske, Heinz (1969). <i>Eskimo Märchen</i>. Die Märchen der Weltliteratur (in German). Düsseldorf • Köln: Eugen Diederichs Verlag.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eskimo+M%C3%A4rchen&rft.place=D%C3%BCsseldorf+%E2%80%A2+K%C3%B6ln&rft.series=Die+M%C3%A4rchen+der+Weltliteratur&rft.pub=Eugen+Diederichs+Verlag&rft.date=1969&rft.aulast=Bar%C3%BCske&rft.aufirst=Heinz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span> The title means: "Eskimo tales", the series means: "The tales of world literature".</li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFBoglár2001" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Boglár, Lajos (2001). <i>A kultúra arcai. Mozaikok a kulturális antropológia köreiből</i>. TÁRStudomány (in Hungarian). Budapest: Napvilág Kiadó. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-963-9082-94-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-963-9082-94-6"><bdi>978-963-9082-94-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+kult%C3%BAra+arcai.+Mozaikok+a+kultur%C3%A1lis+antropol%C3%B3gia+k%C3%B6reib%C5%91l&rft.place=Budapest&rft.series=T%C3%81RStudom%C3%A1ny&rft.pub=Napvil%C3%A1g+Kiad%C3%B3&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-963-9082-94-6&rft.aulast=Bogl%C3%A1r&rft.aufirst=Lajos&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span> The title means "The faces of culture. Mosaics from the area of cultural anthropology".</li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFCzaplicka1914" class="citation book cs1">Czaplicka, M.A. (1914). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sacred-texts.com/sha/sis/sis05.htm">"Types of shaman"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sacred-texts.com/sha/sis/sis00.htm"><i>Shamanism in Siberia. Aboriginal Siberia. A study in social anthropology</i></a>. preface by Marett, R.R. Somerville College, University of Oxford; Clarendon Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60506-060-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60506-060-6"><bdi>978-1-60506-060-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Types+of+shaman&rft.btitle=Shamanism+in+Siberia.+Aboriginal+Siberia.+A+study+in+social+anthropology&rft.pub=Somerville+College%2C+University+of+Oxford%3B+Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1914&rft.isbn=978-1-60506-060-6&rft.aulast=Czaplicka&rft.aufirst=M.A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sacred-texts.com%2Fsha%2Fsis%2Fsis05.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFDeschênes2002" class="citation web cs1">Deschênes, Bruno (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mustrad.org.uk/articles/inuit.htm">"Inuit Throat-Singing"</a>. <i>Musical Traditions</i>. The Magazine for Traditional Music Throughout the World.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Musical+Traditions&rft.atitle=Inuit+Throat-Singing&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Desch%C3%AAnes&rft.aufirst=Bruno&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mustrad.org.uk%2Farticles%2Finuit.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFDiószegi1968" class="citation book cs1">Diószegi, Vilmos (1968). <i>Tracing shamans in Siberia. The story of an ethnographical research expedition</i>. Translated by Anita Rajkay Babó (from Hungarian). Oosterhout: Anthropological Publications.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tracing+shamans+in+Siberia.+The+story+of+an+ethnographical+research+expedition&rft.place=Oosterhout&rft.pub=Anthropological+Publications&rft.date=1968&rft.aulast=Di%C3%B3szegi&rft.aufirst=Vilmos&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFDiószegi1962" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Diószegi, Vilmos (1962). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mek.oszk.hu/01600/01639/"><i>Samanizmus</i></a>. Élet és Tudomány Kiskönyvtár (in Hungarian). Budapest: Gondolat. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-963-9147-13-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-963-9147-13-3"><bdi>978-963-9147-13-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Samanizmus&rft.place=Budapest&rft.series=%C3%89let+%C3%A9s+Tudom%C3%A1ny+Kisk%C3%B6nyvt%C3%A1r&rft.pub=Gondolat&rft.date=1962&rft.isbn=978-963-9147-13-3&rft.aulast=Di%C3%B3szegi&rft.aufirst=Vilmos&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmek.oszk.hu%2F01600%2F01639%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span> The title means: "Shamanism".</li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFDiószegi1998" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Diószegi, Vilmos (1998) [1958]. <i>A sámánhit emlékei a magyar népi műveltségben</i> (in Hungarian) (1st reprint ed.). Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-963-05-7542-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-963-05-7542-3"><bdi>978-963-05-7542-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+s%C3%A1m%C3%A1nhit+eml%C3%A9kei+a+magyar+n%C3%A9pi+m%C5%B1velts%C3%A9gben&rft.place=Budapest&rft.edition=1st+reprint&rft.pub=Akad%C3%A9miai+Kiad%C3%B3&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-963-05-7542-3&rft.aulast=Di%C3%B3szegi&rft.aufirst=Vilmos&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span> The title means: "Remnants of shamanistic beliefs in Hungarian folklore".</li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFFienup-Riordan1994" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ann_Fienup-Riordan" title="Ann Fienup-Riordan">Fienup-Riordan, Ann</a> (1994). <i>Boundaries and Passages: Rule and Ritual in Yup'ik Eskimo Oral Tradition</i>. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-585-12190-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-585-12190-1"><bdi>978-0-585-12190-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Boundaries+and+Passages%3A+Rule+and+Ritual+in+Yup%27ik+Eskimo+Oral+Tradition&rft.place=Norman%2C+Oklahoma&rft.pub=University+of+Oklahoma+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-585-12190-1&rft.aulast=Fienup-Riordan&rft.aufirst=Ann&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFFock1963" class="citation book cs1">Fock, Niels (1963). <i>Waiwai. Religion and society of an Amazonian tribe</i>. Nationalmuseets skrifter, Etnografisk Række (Ethnographical series), VIII. Copenhagen: The National Museum of Denmark.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Waiwai.+Religion+and+society+of+an+Amazonian+tribe&rft.place=Copenhagen&rft.series=Nationalmuseets+skrifter%2C+Etnografisk+R%C3%A6kke+%28Ethnographical+series%29%2C+VIII&rft.pub=The+National+Museum+of+Denmark&rft.date=1963&rft.aulast=Fock&rft.aufirst=Niels&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFFreuchen1961" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Freuchen" title="Peter Freuchen">Freuchen, Peter</a> (1961). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/peterfreuchensfa00pete"><i>Book of the Eskimos</i></a>. Cleveland • New York: The World Publishing Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-449-30802-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-449-30802-8"><bdi>978-0-449-30802-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Book+of+the+Eskimos&rft.place=Cleveland+%E2%80%A2+New+York&rft.pub=The+World+Publishing+Company&rft.date=1961&rft.isbn=978-0-449-30802-8&rft.aulast=Freuchen&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpeterfreuchensfa00pete&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFHajdú1975" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Hajdú, Péter (1975). "A rokonság nyelvi háttere". In Hajdú, Péter (ed.). <i>Uráli népek. Nyelvrokonaink kultúrája és hagyományai</i> (in Hungarian). Budapest: Corvina Kiadó. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-963-13-0900-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-963-13-0900-3"><bdi>978-963-13-0900-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+rokons%C3%A1g+nyelvi+h%C3%A1ttere&rft.btitle=Ur%C3%A1li+n%C3%A9pek.+Nyelvrokonaink+kult%C3%BAr%C3%A1ja+%C3%A9s+hagyom%C3%A1nyai&rft.place=Budapest&rft.pub=Corvina+Kiad%C3%B3&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=978-963-13-0900-3&rft.aulast=Hajd%C3%BA&rft.aufirst=P%C3%A9ter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span> The title means: "Uralic peoples. Culture and traditions of our linguistic relatives"; the chapter means "Linguistical background of the relationship".</li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFHoppál1994" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Hoppál, Mihály (1994). <i>Sámánok, lelkek és jelképek</i> (in Hungarian). Budapest: Helikon Kiadó. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-963-208-298-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-963-208-298-1"><bdi>978-963-208-298-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=S%C3%A1m%C3%A1nok%2C+lelkek+%C3%A9s+jelk%C3%A9pek&rft.place=Budapest&rft.pub=Helikon+Kiad%C3%B3&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-963-208-298-1&rft.aulast=Hopp%C3%A1l&rft.aufirst=Mih%C3%A1ly&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span> The title means "Shamans, souls and symbols".</li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFHoppál1998" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Hoppál, Mihály (1998). "A honfoglalók hitvilága és a magyar samanizmus". <i>Folklór és közösség</i> (in Hungarian). Budapest: Széphalom Könyvműhely. pp. 40–45. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-963-9028-14-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-963-9028-14-2"><bdi>978-963-9028-14-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+honfoglal%C3%B3k+hitvil%C3%A1ga+%C3%A9s+a+magyar+samanizmus&rft.btitle=Folkl%C3%B3r+%C3%A9s+k%C3%B6z%C3%B6ss%C3%A9g&rft.place=Budapest&rft.pages=40-45&rft.pub=Sz%C3%A9phalom+K%C3%B6nyvm%C5%B1hely&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-963-9028-14-2&rft.aulast=Hopp%C3%A1l&rft.aufirst=Mih%C3%A1ly&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span> The title means "The belief system of Hungarians when they entered the Pannonian Basin, and their shamanism".</li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="Hop05" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Hoppál, Mihály (2005). <i>Sámánok Eurázsiában</i> (in Hungarian). Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-963-05-8295-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-963-05-8295-7"><bdi>978-963-05-8295-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=S%C3%A1m%C3%A1nok+Eur%C3%A1zsi%C3%A1ban&rft.place=Budapest&rft.pub=Akad%C3%A9miai+Kiad%C3%B3&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-963-05-8295-7&rft.aulast=Hopp%C3%A1l&rft.aufirst=Mih%C3%A1ly&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span> The title means "Shamans in Eurasia", the book is published also in German, Estonian and Finnish. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.akkrt.hu/main.php?folderID=906&pn=2&cnt=31&catID=&prodID=17202&pdetails=1">Site of publisher with short description on the book (in Hungarian)</a>.</li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFHoppál2006a" class="citation book cs1">Hoppál, Mihály (2006a). "Sámánok, kultúrák és kutatók az ezredfordulón". In Hoppál, Mihály; Szathmári, Botond; Takács, András (eds.). <i>Sámánok és kultúrák</i>. Budapest: Gondolat. pp. 9–25. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-963-9450-28-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-963-9450-28-8"><bdi>978-963-9450-28-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=S%C3%A1m%C3%A1nok%2C+kult%C3%BAr%C3%A1k+%C3%A9s+kutat%C3%B3k+az+ezredfordul%C3%B3n&rft.btitle=S%C3%A1m%C3%A1nok+%C3%A9s+kult%C3%BAr%C3%A1k&rft.place=Budapest&rft.pages=9-25&rft.pub=Gondolat&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-963-9450-28-8&rft.aulast=Hopp%C3%A1l&rft.aufirst=Mih%C3%A1ly&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span> The chapter title means "Shamans, cultures and researchers in the millenary", the book title means "Shamans and cultures".</li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="Hop07b" class="citation book cs1">Hoppál, Mihály (2007b). "Is Shamanism a Folk Religion?". <i>Shamans and Traditions (Vol. 13)</i>. Bibliotheca Shamanistica. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó. pp. 11–16. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-963-05-8521-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-963-05-8521-7"><bdi>978-963-05-8521-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Is+Shamanism+a+Folk+Religion%3F&rft.btitle=Shamans+and+Traditions+%28Vol.+13%29&rft.place=Budapest&rft.series=Bibliotheca+Shamanistica&rft.pages=11-16&rft.pub=Akad%C3%A9miai+Kiad%C3%B3&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-963-05-8521-7&rft.aulast=Hopp%C3%A1l&rft.aufirst=Mih%C3%A1ly&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="Hop07c" class="citation book cs1">Hoppál, Mihály (2007c). "Eco-Animism of Siberian Shamanhood". <i>Shamans and Traditions (Vol 13)</i>. Bibliotheca Shamanistica. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó. pp. 17–26. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-963-05-8521-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-963-05-8521-7"><bdi>978-963-05-8521-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Eco-Animism+of+Siberian+Shamanhood&rft.btitle=Shamans+and+Traditions+%28Vol+13%29&rft.place=Budapest&rft.series=Bibliotheca+Shamanistica&rft.pages=17-26&rft.pub=Akad%C3%A9miai+Kiad%C3%B3&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-963-05-8521-7&rft.aulast=Hopp%C3%A1l&rft.aufirst=Mih%C3%A1ly&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li>Janhunen, Juha. Siberian shamanistic terminology. <i>Mémoires de la Société Finno-Ougrienne,</i> 1986, 194: 97–117.</li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFHugh-Jones1980" class="citation book cs1">Hugh-Jones, Christine (1980). <span class="cs1-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/frommilkriverspa0000hugh"><i>From the Milk River: Spatial and Temporal Processes in Northwest Amazonia</i></a></span>. Cambridge Studies in Social and Cultural Anthropology. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-22544-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-22544-1"><bdi>978-0-521-22544-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+the+Milk+River%3A+Spatial+and+Temporal+Processes+in+Northwest+Amazonia&rft.series=Cambridge+Studies+in+Social+and+Cultural+Anthropology&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-0-521-22544-1&rft.aulast=Hugh-Jones&rft.aufirst=Christine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffrommilkriverspa0000hugh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFHugh-Jones1980" class="citation book cs1">Hugh-Jones, Stephen (1980). <span class="cs1-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/palmpleiadesinit0000hugh"><i>The Palm and the Pleiades. Initiation and Cosmology in Northwest Amazonia</i></a></span>. Cambridge Studies in Social and Cultural Anthropology. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-21952-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-21952-5"><bdi>978-0-521-21952-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Palm+and+the+Pleiades.+Initiation+and+Cosmology+in+Northwest+Amazonia&rft.series=Cambridge+Studies+in+Social+and+Cultural+Anthropology&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-0-521-21952-5&rft.aulast=Hugh-Jones&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpalmpleiadesinit0000hugh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFKleivanB._Sonne1985" class="citation book cs1">Kleivan, Inge; B. Sonne (1985). <i>Eskimos: Greenland and Canada</i>. Iconography of religions, section VIII, "Arctic Peoples", fascicle 2. Leiden, The Netherlands: Institute of Religious Iconography • State University Groningen. E.J. Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-07160-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-07160-5"><bdi>978-90-04-07160-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eskimos%3A+Greenland+and+Canada&rft.place=Leiden%2C+The+Netherlands&rft.series=Iconography+of+religions%2C+section+VIII%2C+%22Arctic+Peoples%22%2C+fascicle+2&rft.pub=Institute+of+Religious+Iconography+%E2%80%A2+State+University+Groningen.+E.J.+Brill&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-90-04-07160-5&rft.aulast=Kleivan&rft.aufirst=Inge&rft.au=B.+Sonne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFMenovščikov1968" class="citation book cs1">Menovščikov, G.A. (= Г. А. Меновщиков) (1968). "Popular Conceptions, Religious Beliefs and Rites of the Asiatic Eskimoes". In Diószegi, Vilmos (ed.). <i>Popular beliefs and folklore tradition in Siberia</i>. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Popular+Conceptions%2C+Religious+Beliefs+and+Rites+of+the+Asiatic+Eskimoes&rft.btitle=Popular+beliefs+and+folklore+tradition+in+Siberia&rft.place=Budapest&rft.pub=Akad%C3%A9miai+Kiad%C3%B3&rft.date=1968&rft.aulast=Menov%C5%A1%C4%8Dikov&rft.aufirst=G.A.+%28%3D+%D0%93.+%D0%90.+%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%89%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFNagy1998" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Nagy, Beáta Boglárka (1998). "Az északi szamojédok". In Csepregi, Márta (ed.). <i>Finnugor kalauz</i>. Panoráma (in Hungarian). Budapest: Medicina Könyvkiadó. pp. 221–34. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-963-243-813-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-963-243-813-9"><bdi>978-963-243-813-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Az+%C3%A9szaki+szamoj%C3%A9dok&rft.btitle=Finnugor+kalauz&rft.place=Budapest&rft.series=Panor%C3%A1ma&rft.pages=221-34&rft.pub=Medicina+K%C3%B6nyvkiad%C3%B3&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-963-243-813-9&rft.aulast=Nagy&rft.aufirst=Be%C3%A1ta+Bogl%C3%A1rka&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span> The chapter means "Northern Samoyedic peoples", the title means <i>Finno-Ugric guide</i>.</li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFNattiez" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Nattiez" title="Jean-Jacques Nattiez">Nattiez, Jean Jacques</a>. <i>Inuit Games and Songs / Chants et Jeux des Inuit</i>. Musiques & musiciens du monde / Musics & musicians of the world. Montreal: Research Group in <a href="/wiki/Music_semiology" title="Music semiology">Musical Semiotics</a>, Faculty of Music, University of Montreal.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Inuit+Games+and+Songs+%2F+Chants+et+Jeux+des+Inuit&rft.place=Montreal&rft.series=Musiques+%26+musiciens+du+monde+%2F+Musics+%26+musicians+of+the+world&rft.pub=Research+Group+in+Musical+Semiotics%2C+Faculty+of+Music%2C+University+of+Montreal&rft.aulast=Nattiez&rft.aufirst=Jean+Jacques&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span>. The songs are <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ubu.com/ethno/soundings/inuit.html">available online</a>, on the <a href="/wiki/Ethnopoetics" title="Ethnopoetics">ethnopoetics</a> website curated by <a href="/wiki/Jerome_Rothenberg" title="Jerome Rothenberg">Jerome Rothenberg</a>.</li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="NoSh04" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Noll" title="Richard Noll">Noll, Richard</a>; Shi, Kun (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090326115313/http://www.desales.edu/assets/desales/SocScience/Oroqen_shaman_FSSForumAug07.pdf">"Chuonnasuan (Meng Jin Fu), The Last Shaman of the Oroqen of Northeast China"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>韓國宗敎硏究 (Journal of Korean Religions)</i>. Vol. 6. Seoul KR: 西江大學校. 宗教硏究所 (Sŏgang Taehakkyo. Chonggyo Yŏnʾguso.). pp. 135–62. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.desales.edu/assets/desales/SocScience/Oroqen_shaman_FSSForumAug07.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2009-03-26<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-05-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%E9%9F%93%E5%9C%8B%E5%AE%97%E6%95%8E%E7%A1%8F%E7%A9%B6+%28Journal+of+Korean+Religions%29&rft.atitle=Chuonnasuan+%28Meng+Jin+Fu%29%2C+The+Last+Shaman+of+the+Oroqen+of+Northeast+China&rft.volume=6&rft.pages=135-62&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Noll&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft.au=Shi%2C+Kun&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.desales.edu%2Fassets%2Fdesales%2FSocScience%2FOroqen_shaman_FSSForumAug07.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span>. It describes the life of Chuonnasuan, the last shaman of the <a href="/wiki/Oroqen_people" title="Oroqen people">Oroqen</a> of Northeast China.</li>
<li>Reinhard, Johan (1976) "Shamanism and Spirit Possession: The Definition Problem." In <i>Spirit Possession in the Nepal Himalayas</i>, J. Hitchcock & R. Jones (eds.), New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, pp. 12–20.</li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Ippei_Shimamura" title="Ippei Shimamura">Shimamura, Ippei</a> <i>The roots Seekers: Shamanism and Ethnicity Among the Mongol Buryats.</i> Yokohama, Japan: Shumpusha, 2014.</li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFSingh2018" class="citation journal cs1">Singh, Manvir (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/318255042">"The cultural evolution of shamanism"</a>. <i>Behavioral & Brain Sciences</i>. <b>41</b>: e66, 1–61. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0140525X17001893">10.1017/S0140525X17001893</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28679454">28679454</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:206264885">206264885</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Behavioral+%26+Brain+Sciences&rft.atitle=The+cultural+evolution+of+shamanism&rft.volume=41&rft.pages=e66%2C+1-61&rft.date=2018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A206264885%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28679454&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0140525X17001893&rft.aulast=Singh&rft.aufirst=Manvir&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F318255042&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span> Summary of the cultural evolutionary and cognitive foundations of shamanism; published with commentaries by 25 scholars (including anthropologists, philosophers, and psychologists).</li>
<li>Turner, Robert P.; Lukoff, David; Barnhouse, Ruth Tiffany & Lu, Francis G. (1995) <i>Religious or Spiritual Problem. A Culturally Sensitive Diagnostic Category in the DSM-IV</i>. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, Vol.183, No. 7, pp. 435–44</li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFVoigt2000" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Voigt, Miklós (2000). "Sámán – a szó és értelme". <i>Világnak kezdetétől fogva. Történeti folklorisztikai tanulmányok</i> (in Hungarian). Budapest: Universitas Könyvkiadó. pp. 41–45. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-963-9104-39-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-963-9104-39-6"><bdi>978-963-9104-39-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=S%C3%A1m%C3%A1n+%E2%80%93+a+sz%C3%B3+%C3%A9s+%C3%A9rtelme&rft.btitle=Vil%C3%A1gnak+kezdet%C3%A9t%C5%91l+fogva.+T%C3%B6rt%C3%A9neti+folklorisztikai+tanulm%C3%A1nyok&rft.place=Budapest&rft.pages=41-45&rft.pub=Universitas+K%C3%B6nyvkiad%C3%B3&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-963-9104-39-6&rft.aulast=Voigt&rft.aufirst=Mikl%C3%B3s&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span> The chapter discusses the etymology and meaning of word "shaman".</li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFWinkelman2000" class="citation book cs1">Winkelman, Michael (2000). <i>Shamanism: The neural ecology of consciousness and healing</i>. Westport, CT: Bergen & Gavey. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-963-9104-39-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-963-9104-39-6"><bdi>978-963-9104-39-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Shamanism%3A+The+neural+ecology+of+consciousness+and+healing&rft.place=Westport%2C+CT&rft.pub=Bergen+%26+Gavey&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-963-9104-39-6&rft.aulast=Winkelman&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span> Major work on the evolutionary and psychological origins of shamanism.</li>
<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><cite id="CITEREFWitzel2011" class="citation journal cs1">Witzel, Michael (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dash.harvard.edu/bitstream/handle/1/8456537/Witzel_ShamanismNorthern.pdf?sequence=2">"Shamanism in Northern and Southern Eurasia: their distinctive methods and change of consciousness"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Social Science Information</i>. <b>50</b> (1): 39–61. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0539018410391044">10.1177/0539018410391044</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144745844">144745844</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Social+Science+Information&rft.atitle=Shamanism+in+Northern+and+Southern+Eurasia%3A+their+distinctive+methods+and+change+of+consciousness&rft.volume=50&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=39-61&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0539018410391044&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144745844%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Witzel&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdash.harvard.edu%2Fbitstream%2Fhandle%2F1%2F8456537%2FWitzel_ShamanismNorthern.pdf%3Fsequence%3D2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AShamanism" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Further_reading">Further reading</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shamanism&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2>
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1054258005"/><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em">
<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Campbell" title="Joseph Campbell">Joseph Campbell</a>, <i>The Masks of God: Primitive Mythology.</i> 1959; reprint, New York and London: Penguin Books, 1976. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1067248974"/><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-019443-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-019443-2">978-0-14-019443-2</a></li>