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<h1 class="menu-title">Buddhadhamma</h1>
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<h1 id="awakened-beings"><a class="header" href="#awakened-beings">Awakened Beings</a></h1>
<p><em>Awakened Beings</em></p>
<div class="opening-illustration">
<p><a href="https://buddhadhamma.github.io/includes/images/illustrations/ch-7-buddha-trade.pdf"><img src="./includes/images/illustrations/ch-7-buddha-trade.jpg" alt="image" /></a></p>
<p class="caption">
<a href="https://buddhadhamma.github.io/includes/images/illustrations/ch-7-buddha-trade.pdf" target="_blank">
(Open large size)
</a>
</p>
</div>
<h2 id="introduction"><a class="header" href="#introduction">Introduction</a></h2>
<p>There is a well-known teaching in the Buddhist scriptures describing the
stages of enlightenment – the stages of realizing Nibbāna. This
comprises the four paths (<em>magga</em>) and four fruits (<em>phala</em>):</p>
<ol>
<li>
<p>The path and fruit of stream-entry<br />
(<em>sotāpatti-magga</em> and <em>sotāpatti-phala</em>).</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>The path and fruit of once-returning<br />
(<em>sakadāgāmi-magga</em> and <em>sakadāgāmi-phala</em>).</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>The path and fruit of non-returning<br />
(<em>anāgāmi-magga</em> and <em>anāgāmi-phala</em>).</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>The path and fruit of arahantship<br />
(<em>arahatta-magga</em> and <em>arahatta-phala</em>).</p>
</li>
</ol>
<p>The first ’path’ of stream-entry is also called ’vision’ (<em>dassana</em>),
because it refers to the first glimpse of Nibbāna. The following three
’paths’, of once-returning, non-returning, and arahantship, are
collectively known as ’cultivation’ (<em>bhāvanā</em>), since they involve a
development in the Dhamma initially realized at the moment of
stream-entry.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn1-1"><a href="#fn-fn1">1</a></sup> {403}</p>
<p>Those who have reached complete realization of Nibbāna, as well as those
who obtain a first glimpse of the goal and are thus guaranteed to reach
it, are classified as true disciples of the Buddha. They are known as
the ’community of disciples’ (<em>sāvaka-saṅgha</em>), as seen for example in
the verse praising the attributes of the Sangha: ’They are the Blessed
One’s disciples who have practised well.’</p>
<p>There are many special terms used to describe these true disciples. The
most frequently used term is <em>ariya-puggala</em> (or <em>ariya</em>), translated as
’cultivated’, ’noble’, or ’far from the foe’ (i.e. far from mental
defilement). The term <em>ariya-puggala</em> was originally used in a general
sense; only later was it used specifically in relation to the stages of
enlightenment.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn2-1"><a href="#fn-fn2">2</a></sup> The original term used in the Pali Canon when
distinguishing the stages of enlightenment is <em>dakkhiṇeyya</em> (or
<em>dakkhiṇeyya</em>-<em>puggala</em>). In any case, the terms <em>ariya-puggala</em> and
<em>dakkhiṇeyya</em>-<em>puggala</em> were adopted from Brahmanism. The Buddha altered
their meanings, as he did with many other words, for example: <em>brahmā</em>,
<em>brāhmaṇa</em> (’brahmin’), <em>nahātaka</em> (’washed clean’), and <em>vedagū</em>
(’sage’).</p>
<p>The Buddha gave the term <em>ariya</em> a new definition, different from that
prescribed by the brahmins. The word <em>ariya</em> (Sanskrit: <em>ārya</em>; English:
Aryan) originally referred to a race of people who migrated from the
northwest regions and invaded the Indian subcontinent several thousand
years ago. As a result of this invasion, the native inhabitants
retreated either south or into the forests and mountains. The Aryans
considered themselves cultivated; they disdained the native people,
marking them as savages and enslaving them. Later, when the Aryans had
consolidated their rule and established the caste system, the native
peoples were accorded the lowest tier as <em>sudda</em> (Śūdra; labourers). The
term <em>ariya</em> (’noble’) designated the three upper castes of <em>khattiya</em>
(Kṣatriyaḥ; warriors, kings, administrators), <em>brāhmaṇa</em> (brahmins;
scholars, priests, teachers), and <em>vessa</em> (Vaishya; merchants). Suddas
and all others were labelled <em>anariya</em> (’ignoble’, ’base’).<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn3-1"><a href="#fn-fn3">3</a></sup> A
person’s caste was determined at birth; there was no way to choose or
alter one’s position.</p>
<p>When the Buddha began teaching, he declared that nobility does not
depend on birth, but rather on righteousness (Dhamma), which stems from
spiritual practice and training. Whoever acts in line with noble
principles (<em>ariya-dhamma</em>) is ’noble’ (<em>ariya</em>) irrespective of birth
or caste. Whoever does not is <em>anariya</em>. Truth is not restricted to the
dictates of brahmins and the Vedas,<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn4-1"><a href="#fn-fn4">4</a></sup> but is objective and universal.
A person who has realized these universal truths is noble, despite
having never studied the Vedas. Because knowledge of these truths makes
one noble, they are called the ’noble truths’.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn5-1"><a href="#fn-fn5">5</a></sup> {404} Technically,
those who understand the noble truths are stream-enterers and above.
Therefore, the scriptures generally use the term <em>ariya</em> as synonymous
with <em>dakkhiṇeyya-puggala</em> (’those worthy of offerings’), a term which
will be discussed shortly.</p>
<p>The Four Noble Truths (<em>ariya-sacca</em>) are sometimes referred to as the
<em>ariya-dhamma</em>.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn6-1"><a href="#fn-fn6">6</a></sup> The term <em>ariya-dhamma</em>, however, does not have a
fixed definition and is used in other contexts.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn7-1"><a href="#fn-fn7">7</a></sup> It can refer to the
ten ’wholesome ways of action’ (<em>kusala-kammapatha</em>)<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn8-1"><a href="#fn-fn8">8</a></sup> and to the five
precepts.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn9-1"><a href="#fn-fn9">9</a></sup> Such definitions are not contradictory, since those
householders who truly keep the five precepts their entire lives,
without blind adherence (<em>sīlabbata-parāmāsa</em>) and without blemish, are
stream-enterers and above. The standard commentarial definition of
<em>ariya</em> in reference to ’noble’ people encompasses the Buddha,
Pacceka-Buddhas<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn10-1"><a href="#fn-fn10">10</a></sup> and disciples of the Buddha,<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn11-1"><a href="#fn-fn11">11</a></sup> although in some
places the definition refers to the Buddha alone.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn12-1"><a href="#fn-fn12">12</a></sup> When qualifying a
spiritual practice or factor, <em>ariya</em> is equivalent to ’transcendent’
(<em>lokuttara</em>),<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn13-1"><a href="#fn-fn13">13</a></sup> although this is not always strictly the case.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn14-1"><a href="#fn-fn14">14</a></sup></p>
<p>Although the definition of <em>ariya</em> is rather broad, one can summarize
that when the term is used in reference to people it is identical to
<em>dakkhiṇeyya-puggala</em>, meaning those who have gone beyond the state of
ordinary persons and become members of the <em>sāvaka-saṅgha</em> (today, more
often called the <em>ariya-saṅgha</em>). (See also
Note <a href="#note-categories-ariyas">Commentarial Categories of Ariyas</a>). In the commentaries and
sub-commentaries this definition is almost fixed, with very few
exceptions. In the scriptures, the term <em>ariya</em> tends to be used in a
general sense, not specifying the level of awakening. <em>Dakkhiṇeyya</em> is
the more specific technical term and is used less often than <em>ariya</em>.</p>
<div class="note">
<p><span class="caption">Commentarial Categories of Ariyas</span><a id="note-categories-ariyas"></a></p>
<blockquote>
<p>Some exceptions include passages at: J. II. 42; 280; J. III. 81;
J. IV. 293. The commentaries explain these exceptions by classifying
<em>ariya</em> into four categories:</p>
<ol>
<li>
<p><em>ācāra-ariya</em> – noble by behaviour; those grounded in virtue;</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>dassana-ariya</em> – noble in appearance; those possessing features
that instil confidence;</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>liṅga-ariya</em> – noble by ’gender’, i.e. those living the life of
a spiritual renunciant (<em>samaṇa</em>);</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>paṭivedha-ariya</em> – noble through realization, i.e. the Buddha,
Pacceka-Buddhas and enlightened disciples of the Buddha.</p>
</li>
</ol>
<p><em>J. II. 42, 280; J. III. 354; J. IV. 291.</em></p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>The Buddha extended the meaning of the term <em>ariya</em>, referring to
members of a new community, i.e. Buddhist disciples who are ennobled by
practising the Middle Way. These disciples live ethically, non-violently
and in harmony. They are dedicated to promoting wellbeing for all. {405}
Their actions are not ruled by the enticements and threats of religious
officials, who often cater to people’s selfish needs. Moral principles
may be perverted due to the decisions of such religious authorities. An
example of this is the sacrifice of animals performed by brahmins.</p>
<p><em>Dakkhiṇeyya</em> translates as ’one worthy of offerings’.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn15-1"><a href="#fn-fn15">15</a></sup> The original
Brahmanic meaning of this word referred to the payment received for
performing ceremonies, particularly sacrifices (<em>yañña</em>; Sanskrit:
<em>yajña</em>). The Vedas describe the forms of payment, including: gold,
silver, household goods, furniture, vehicles, grain, livestock, young
women, and land. The more prestigious the ceremony the greater the
reward. For example, in the <em>Ashvamedha</em> (’royal horse sacrifice’) the
king shared the spoils of war with the priests. The recipients of these
gifts were invariably the brahmins, because they were the only ones
entitled to perform the rituals.</p>
<p>When the Buddha began teaching he spoke in favour of abolishing animal
sacrifice, and he transformed the meanings of the words <em>yañña</em> and
<em>dakkhiṇā</em>. He developed the meaning of <em>yañña</em> into cruelty-free
almsgiving, while <em>dakkhiṇā</em> in the Buddhist teachings refers to
suitable gifts and faithful donations, not a fee or recompense.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn16-1"><a href="#fn-fn16">16</a></sup> If
it is a reward then it is a reward for virtue, but it is more aptly
called an offering in honour of virtue. In addition, these gifts are not
excessively lavish, but simple and basic requisites essential for
life.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn17-1"><a href="#fn-fn17">17</a></sup></p>
<p>Persons worthy of these offerings have trained themselves and are full
of goodness. They embody a virtuous and joyful life. Their very
existence in the world is a blessing to others. When they go out into
the wider society and impart these virtuous principles, living as an
example and instructing others, they offer a priceless service to the
world. And these individuals do not demand or wish for recompense. They
rely on the offerings of the four requisites merely to sustain life.
Offerings made to such people bear great fruit because the offerings
permit goodness to manifest and increase in the world. These people are
called ’worthy of offerings’ (<em>dakkhiṇeyya</em>) because offerings made to
them yield valuable results. They are also referred to as the
’incomparable field of merit’,<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn18-1"><a href="#fn-fn18">18</a></sup> because they are a source of virtue
to blossom and spread in the world.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn19-1"><a href="#fn-fn19">19</a></sup> {406}</p>
<p>People give suitable remuneration to ordinary teachers; is it not
appropriate for people to give simple gifts to those who teach virtue
and the ways of truth? In today’s society people whose business causes
destruction – harming the economy, the environment, or even human
goodness – receive all sorts of lavish rewards.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn20-1"><a href="#fn-fn20">20</a></sup> Is it not right
that those who protect the world and protect virtue by being moderate in
consumption should receive support? Those who consume only what is
necessary have minimal impact on the world’s resources; they take little
and give much in return.</p>
<p>The making of offerings differs from ordinary giving; one does not give
out of personal affection, obligation, or an expectation to get
something in return. One gives with faith in the power of goodness,
appreciating that the recipient is a member of the Buddhist monastic
community (<em>saṅgha</em>), or that he or she upholds virtue. In any case, the
recipient must possess the necessary qualities to be entitled to these
offerings. For example, an unenlightened monk or novice who eats the
almsfood of lay-supporters is ’indebted’, despite having moral conduct
and making effort in Dhamma practice. He should hasten to free himself
from this debt by achieving the state of a <em>dakkhiṇeyya-puggala</em>. Ven.
Mahā Kassapa, for example, claimed that he was in debt to the laypeople
for seven days, between being ordained and realizing arahantship.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn21-1"><a href="#fn-fn21">21</a></sup>
After his ordination he made effort in Dhamma practice as an unawakened
person for seven days, before reaching the fruit of arahantship and
becoming one worthy of the offerings by the faithful laypeople.</p>
<p>The commentaries categorize monks and novices who receive offerings in
four ways:</p>
<ol>
<li>
<p>Those who behave immorally. They do not have the inner qualities
fitting for a mendicant and merely wear the outward signs of a monk.
They are undeserving of offerings; their use of offerings is called
<em>theyya-paribhoga</em>: ’to consume as a thief’.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Those who have moral conduct but do not reflect with wisdom when
using the four requisites. For example, when eating almsfood they
neglect to consider: ’I eat not for pleasure or beautification. I
use almsfood only for the maintenance and nourishment of this body,
to keep it healthy, to sustain the holy life.’ Such use of offerings
is called <em>iṇa-paribhoga</em>: ’to consume as a debtor’.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn22-1"><a href="#fn-fn22">22</a></sup> {407}</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Sekha</em>, or the first seven of the eight <em>dakkhiṇeyya-puggala</em> (see
below). Their use of offerings is called <em>dāyajja-paribhoga</em>: ’to
consume as heirs’. They have the right to use these offerings as
heirs to the Buddha, who was supreme among the
<em>dakkhiṇeyya-puggala</em>.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Arahants, who are freed from the enslavement of craving. Their
virtue makes them truly worthy of offerings. Their use of offerings
is called <em>sāmi-paribhoga</em>: ’to consume as masters’.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn23-1"><a href="#fn-fn23">23</a></sup></p>
</li>
</ol>
<p>Here we can see that the term <em>dakkhiṇeyya</em> is used in both social and
economic contexts. The principle of offerings (and to some extent the
principle of generosity) fits into the wider principle of the Buddhist
social structure, of having an independent group of individuals (the
monastic sangha) within a wider society. These individuals gain their
independence by not seeking benefits from society and not being directly
involved in other social institutions. They have their own way of life
based on spiritual freedom. They support society by transmitting the
Dhamma, without seeking recompense for their work. They live on
offerings by members of the wider society, who give out of devotion to
the Dhamma in order to preserve the teachings and purify themselves of
unwholesome qualities like greed. Offering this support has minimal
financial impact on the supporters’ lives.</p>
<p>The recipients (the monastic sangha) are like bees who collect pollen
from various flowers to make honey and build their hives, without
damaging even the fragrance or complexion of the flowers.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn24-1"><a href="#fn-fn24">24</a></sup> Indeed,
they fertilize the flowers. Because they depend on others to live, they
have an obligation to act for the welfare and happiness of all. Although
their life depends on others it does not depend on anyone in particular;
they rely on the public and in a sense belong to the public, but are
subject to no single individual.</p>
<p>In a well-organized society no one should be destitute and forced to
beg.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn25-1"><a href="#fn-fn25">25</a></sup> In such a society religious mendicants live on the offerings
of others but the receiving of alms has no resemblance to begging. This
system of an independent community that is devoted to spiritual values
and provides a necessary balance to the wider society is unique among
social systems in the world.</p>
<p>There are generally two ways to categorize <em>dakkhiṇeyya-puggala</em> or
<em>ariya-puggala</em>: into the eight levels of eradicating defilements (the
eight levels of path and fruit mentioned above), and into the seven
qualities or practices that enable the attainment of those eight levels.
(The first of these classifications is presented below; the second
classification is presented in a following section.)<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn26-1"><a href="#fn-fn26">26</a></sup> {408}</p>
<h2 id="eight-noble-beings"><a class="header" href="#eight-noble-beings">Eight Noble Beings</a></h2>
<p>This division is associated with the ten ’fetters’ (<em>saṁyojana</em>), which
are abandoned at different levels of awakening, and with the development
of the threefold training (<em>sikkhā</em>) of moral conduct, concentration,
and wisdom. The ten fetters are those defilements that bind beings to
suffering in the round of rebirth, similar to yokes that bind an animal
to a wagon:<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn27-1"><a href="#fn-fn27">27</a></sup></p>
<div class="list-none">
<ul>
<li>
<p><strong>A.</strong> Five lower fetters (<em>orambhāgiya-saṁyojana</em>):</p>
<ul>
<li>
<p><strong>1.</strong> <em>Sakkāya-diṭṭhi</em>: self-view; the firm belief in a ’self’; the
inability to see that beings are simply a collection of assorted
aggregates. This view creates a coarse form of selfishness, as
well as conflict and suffering.</p>
<p>The stock definition is: <em>One regards material form as self, or
self as possessed of material form, or material form as in self,
or self as in material form. One regards feeling as self…. One
regards perception as self…. One regards volitional formations
as self…. One regards consciousness as self … or self as in
consciousness</em>.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn28-1"><a href="#fn-fn28">28</a></sup></p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>2.</strong> <em>Vicikicchā</em>: doubt; hesitation; distrust. Doubts, for example,
regarding the Buddha, the Dhamma, the Sangha, the training, the
direction of one’s life, and Dependent Origination. This doubt
generates a lack of confidence, courage, and discernment in
walking the Noble Path.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>3.</strong> <em>Sīlabbata-parāmāsa</em>: attachment to moral precepts and religious
practices. Attachment to form and ceremony. The mistaken
understanding that one will be purified and liberated merely by
the act of keeping moral precepts, rules, traditions, and
practices. The belief that these rules and practices are sacred
in themselves. One follows them with the desire for reward or
acquisition. Missing the true purpose of moral precepts and
religious observances, one ends up astray or in an extreme form
of practice (say of practising extreme asceticism – <em>tapa</em>),
not on the Noble Path.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn29-1"><a href="#fn-fn29">29</a></sup></p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>4.</strong> <em>Kāma-rāga</em>: sensual lust; desire for pleasurable sights,
sounds, smells, tastes, and tactile objects.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>5.</strong> <em>Paṭigha</em>: animosity; irritation; indignation.</p>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>B.</strong> Five higher fetters (<em>uddhambhāgiya-saṁyojana</em>):</p>
<ul>
<li>
<p><strong>6.</strong> <em>Rūpa-rāga</em>: attachment to fine-material form, e.g. attachment
to the four jhānas of the fine-material sphere; delighting in
the bliss and peace of these jhānas; desiring the fine-material
sphere (<em>rūpa-bhava</em>).</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>7.</strong> <em>Arūpa-rāga</em>: attachment to immateriality, e.g. attachment to
the four immaterial jhānas; desire for the formless sphere
(<em>arūpa-bhava</em>).</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>8.</strong> <em>Māna</em>: conceit; the view of oneself as superior, equal, or
inferior to others.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>9.</strong> <em>Uddhacca</em>: restlessness; mental disturbance; agitation.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>10.</strong> <em>Avijjā</em>: ignorance; not knowing the truth; not knowing the law
of cause and effect; not knowing the Four Noble Truths. {409}</p>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
<p>The eight <em>dakkhiṇeyya-puggala</em> or <em>ariya-puggala</em> can be classified
into four types or stages, which are related to the fetters in the
following way:<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn30-1"><a href="#fn-fn30">30</a></sup></p>
<div class="list-none">
<ul>
<li>
<p><strong>A.</strong> <em>Sekha</em> (’learners’) or <em>sa-upādisesa-puggala</em> (’those who still
have grasping’):</p>
<ul>
<li>
<p><strong>1.</strong> <em>Sotāpanna</em>: ’stream-enterers’; those who walk the noble path
truly and correctly.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn31-1"><a href="#fn-fn31">31</a></sup> They have perfect moral conduct and an
adequate level of concentration and wisdom. They have abandoned
the first three fetters of <em>sakkāya-diṭṭhi</em>, <em>vicikicchā</em> and
<em>sīlabbata-parāmāsa</em>.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn32-1"><a href="#fn-fn32">32</a></sup></p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>2.</strong> <em>Sakadāgāmī</em>: ’once-returners’; those who will return to this
world one more time and eliminate all suffering. They have
perfect moral conduct and an adequate level of concentration and
wisdom. Apart from abandoning the first three fetters, they have
attenuated greed, hatred and delusion to a greater degree than
stream-enterers.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn33-1"><a href="#fn-fn33">33</a></sup></p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>3.</strong> <em>Anāgāmī</em>: ’non-returners’; they reach final enlightenment from
the realm where they appear after death – they do not return to
this world. They have perfect moral conduct and concentration,
and an adequate level of wisdom. They have abandoned two more
fetters, of <em>kāma-rāga</em> and <em>paṭigha</em>, thus abandoning the first
five fetters.</p>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>B.</strong> <em>Asekha</em> (’those who have finished training’) or
<em>anupādisesa-puggala</em> (’those with no grasping’):</p>
<ul>
<li><strong>4.</strong> <em>Arahant</em>: ’worthy ones’; those worthy of offerings and respect;
those who have broken the spokes of the wheel of <em>saṁsāra</em>;
those free from mental taints (<em>āsava</em>). They have perfect moral
conduct, concentration and wisdom. They have abandoned the
remaining five fetters, thus abandoning all ten fetters.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
<p><em>Sekha</em>, translated as ’learners’ or ’trainees’, must apply themselves
to sever the fetters and realize the gradual stages up to arahantship.
<em>Asekha</em>, the arahants, are adepts; they have gone beyond training. They
have finished their spiritual work and eradicated all defilements. They
have reached the greatest good; there is no higher spiritual realization
for which to strive.</p>
<p><em>Sa-upādisesa-puggala</em> are equivalent to the first three
<em>dakkhiṇeyya-puggala</em> above. They still have <em>upādi</em> (’fuel’), that is,
they still have <em>upādāna</em> (’grasping’) – they still have mental
impurities. <em>Anupādisesa-puggala</em>, the arahants, are free from grasping
and impurity. Note that <em>upādi</em> here is translated as synonymous with
<em>upādāna</em> (’grasping’).<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn34-1"><a href="#fn-fn34">34</a></sup> This differs from the <em>upādi</em> in
<em>sa-upādisesa-nibbāna</em> and <em>anupādisesa-nibbāna</em>, which translates as
’that which is grasped’, i.e. the five aggregates. {410} The equating of
<em>upādi</em> with <em>upādāna</em> corresponds with the Buddha’s teachings on
essential spiritual factors, for example the Four Foundations of
Mindfulness (<em>sati-paṭṭhāna</em>), the Four Ways of Success (<em>iddhi-pāda</em>),
and the Five Faculties (<em>indriya</em>), which often end with the
encouragement that one can expect one of two results from cultivating
these factors: either arahantship in this very life, or if there is a
residue of clinging, the state of non-returning.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn35-1"><a href="#fn-fn35">35</a></sup> The term <em>upādi</em>
in these contexts refers to <em>upādāna</em> or generally to mental defilement
(<em>kilesa</em>).</p>
<p>The eight noble beings are precisely these four <em>ariya-puggala</em>
described above, but each level of awakening is subdivided as a
pair:<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn36-1"><a href="#fn-fn36">36</a></sup></p>
<ol>
<li>
<p>Stream-enterer (one who has realized the fruit of stream-entry).</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>One practising to realize stream-entry.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Once-returner (one who has realized the fruit of once-returning).</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>One practising to realize once-returning.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Non-returner (one who has realized the fruit of non-returning).</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>One practising to realize non-returning.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Arahant (one who has realized the fruit of arahantship).</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>One practising to realize arahantship. (See
Note <a href="#note-translation-pairs">Translations of Pairs</a>)</p>
</li>
</ol>
<div class="note">
<p><span class="caption">Translations of Pairs</span><a id="note-translation-pairs"></a></p>
<blockquote>
<p>These days one finds the translation of these pairs as ’fruition of
stream-entry’ (<em>sotāpatti-phala</em>), ’path of stream-entry’
(<em>sotāpatti-magga</em>), ’fruition of once-returning’
(<em>sakadāgāmi-phala</em>), ’path of once-returning’ (<em>sakadāgāmi-magga</em>),
etc. This translation follows commentarial terminology: for
<em>maggaṭṭha</em> and <em>phalaṭṭha</em> see Nd1A. II. 254; Nd2A. 15; KhA. 183;
DhA. I. 334; VinṬ.: Pārājikakaṇḍaṁ, Bhikkhupadabhājanīyavaṇṇanā;
DA. II. 515 = AA. IV. 3 = PañcA. 191; MA. II. 120; UdA. 306. The terms
<em>sotāpatti-magga</em>, <em>sakadāgāmi-magga</em> and <em>anāgāmi-magga</em> do not
appear in the older texts of the Tipiṭaka; they first appear in the
Niddesa, Paṭisambhidāmagga and the Abhidhamma. In the older texts, the
term <em>arahatta-magga</em> is only found in the passages: <em>arahā vā assasi
arahattamaggaṁ vā samāpanno</em> and <em>arahanto vā arahattamaggaṁ vā
samāpannā</em>: Vin. I. 32, 39; D. I. 144; S. I. 78; A. II. 42; A. III.
391; Ud. 7, 65. In later texts, e.g. the Niddesa, Paṭisambhidāmagga
and the Abhidhamma, it is extensively used.</p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>These four pairs of noble beings are known as the <em>sāvaka-saṅgha</em>, the
disciples of the Buddha who are considered exemplary human beings and
comprise one of the three ’jewels’ (<em>ratana</em>) in Buddhism. The chant in
praise of the Sangha includes: ’The four pairs, the eight kinds of noble
beings; these are the Blessed One’s disciples’ (<em>yadidaṁ cattāri
purisayugāni aṭṭha purisapuggalā esa bhagavato sāvaka-saṅgho</em>).<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn37-1"><a href="#fn-fn37">37</a></sup></p>
<p>In the scriptures, these disciples of the Buddha are later referred to
as the ’noble sangha’ (<em>ariya-saṅgha</em>). In the older texts, the term
<em>ariya-saṅgha</em> is used only once as a synonym for <em>sāvaka-saṅgha</em>, in a
verse of the Aṅguttara-Nikāya.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn38-1"><a href="#fn-fn38">38</a></sup> In the commentaries it is used
frequently, especially in the Visuddhimagga.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn39-1"><a href="#fn-fn39">39</a></sup> When the term
<em>ariya-saṅgha</em> gained popularity over <em>sāvaka-saṅgha</em>, the term
<em>sammati-saṅgha</em> was used to refer to the <em>bhikkhu-saṅgha</em>.
<em>Sammati-saṅgha</em> means the agreed-upon or authorized sangha, referring
to any gathering of more than three bhikkhus. These terms are often
paired: <em>sāvaka-saṅgha</em> with <em>bhikkhu-saṅgha</em>, and <em>ariya-saṅgha</em> with
<em>sammati-saṅgha</em>. In any case the terms <em>ariya-saṅgha</em> and
<em>sammati-saṅgha</em> do not contradict the older terms and offer a valuable
perspective on the meaning of the word ’sangha’. {411}</p>
<div class="figure">
<p><span class="caption">Eight Noble Beings</span><a id="tbl-eight-noble-beings"></a>
<img src="./includes/images/diagrams/eight-noble-beings.jpg" alt="image" /></p>
</div>
<h2 id="attributes-of-an-arahant"><a class="header" href="#attributes-of-an-arahant">Attributes of an Arahant</a></h2>
<p>{343} The teaching of Buddhism is practical and emphasizes things that
lead to insight and wellbeing.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn40-1"><a href="#fn-fn40">40</a></sup> Buddhism does not encourage
conceptualizing and debating over things that should be realised through
practical application, unless it is necessary for basic understanding.
In relation to the study of Nibbāna, rather than discussing the state of
Nibbāna directly, it may be of more value to study those persons who
have realized Nibbāna, as well as the benefits of realization apparent
in the life and character of such persons.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn41-1"><a href="#fn-fn41">41</a></sup></p>
<p>We can gain some insight into the nature of arahants by looking at the
epithets used for them in the scriptures. Here is a selection of these
epithets, which express appreciation for their virtue, purity,
excellence, and degree of spiritual attainment:</p>
<ul>
<li>
<p><em>Anuppatta-sadattha:</em> one who has attained wellbeing.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Arahant:</em> ’worthy one’; a person far from mental defilement.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Asekha:</em> one who has finished training; a person not requiring
training; a person possessing the qualities of an adept
(<em>asekha-dhamma</em>).</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Kata-karaṇīya:</em> a person who has done what had to be done.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Khīṇāsava:</em> a person free from mental taints (<em>āsava</em>).</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Mahāpurisa:</em> a person great in virtue; one who acts for the welfare
of the manyfolk; one who has self-mastery.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Ohitabhāra:</em> one who has laid down the burden.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Parama-kusala:</em> a person possessing superior wholesome qualities.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Parikkhīṇa-bhava-saṁyojana:</em> one who has destroyed the fetters
(<em>saṁyojana</em>), which bind people to existence.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Sammadaññā-vimutta:</em> a person released through consummate
knowledge.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Sampanna-kusala:</em> a person perfected in wholesomeness.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Uttama-purisa:</em> a supreme person; a most excellent person.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Vusitavant <em>or</em> vusita brahmacariya:</em> a person who has fulfilled
the holy life. {344}</p>
</li>
</ul>
<p>Many other terms were originally used by other religious traditions, but
their meaning was altered to accord with the essential principles of
Dhammavinaya, for example:</p>
<ul>
<li>
<p><em>Ariya (<em>or</em> ariya-puggala):</em> a noble person; an excellent person; a
person who has developed non-violence towards all beings.
Originally, this term referred to members of the first three castes
or to those who are ’noble’ (Aryan) by birth.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Brāhmaṇa:</em> a ’true brahmin’; a person who has passed beyond evil by
abandoning all unwholesome qualities. Originally, this term referred
to members of the highest caste.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Dakkhiṇeyya:</em> one worthy of offerings. Originally, this term
referred to those brahmins who were worthy of a reward for
conducting sacrifices.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Kevalī <em>or</em> kebalī:</em> a ’whole’ person; a ’complete’ person.
Originally, this term referred to the highest individual in the Jain
religion.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Nahātaka:</em> one who has been ’ceremoniously bathed’; one who has
’bathed in the Dhamma’; one who has purified his or her volitional
actions (<em>kamma</em>); one who is a refuge for all beings. Originally,
this term referred to a brahmin who passed through a ritual of
bathing and was elevated in status.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Samaṇa:</em> a tranquil person; one who has quelled the defilements.
Originally, this term referred to renunciants in general.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><em>Vedagū:</em> a person who has arrived at knowledge; one who is
well-versed in knowledge and who is released from attachment to
feeling (<em>vedanā</em>). Originally, this term referred to a brahmin who
had finished studying the three Vedas.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn42-1"><a href="#fn-fn42">42</a></sup></p>
</li>
</ul>
<p>To understand the nature of an arahant it is necessary to consider the
epithets in the context of the teachings in which they are mentioned,
for example: the Three Taints (<em>āsava</em>), the Three Trainings (<em>sikkhā</em>),
the Ten Qualities of an Adept (<em>asekha-dhamma</em>), the Ten Fetters
(<em>saṁyojana</em>), and the holy life (<em>brahmacariya</em>) as the Eightfold Path.</p>
<p>Many Buddhists tend to describe the attributes of an arahant and of
other awakened beings from a perspective of negation, by determining
those defilements that have been abandoned or dispelled. For example, a
stream-enterer has eliminated the first three fetters (<em>saṁyojana</em>); a
once-returner has eliminated these three fetters and further attenuated
greed, hatred, and delusion; a non-returner has eliminated the first
five fetters; and an arahant has eliminated all ten fetters.
Alternatively, they define an arahant briefly as ’one who is without
greed, hatred and delusion’ or ’one who is free from defilement’. Such
definitions are useful in that they are clear and provide simple
standards of evaluation. But they are limited; they do not clearly
demonstrate the exceptional characteristics and prominent features of
awakened beings, nor do they describe how such beings live virtuous
lives and benefit the world at large.</p>
<p>In fact, there are many terms and passages describing the
characteristics of an arahant in affirmative ways. Many descriptions or
explanations of arahants, however, cover a wide range of subject
material, making it difficult to summarize the positive attributes in a
clearly defined, well-ordered way. Otherwise, they recount specific
incidents and individuals, but do not describe attributes common to all
arahants.</p>
<p>An important term in this context is <em>bhāvitatta</em>, which is literally
translated as ’one who has developed himself’ or ’one who is
self-developed’.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn43-1"><a href="#fn-fn43">43</a></sup> This term is used for all arahants: the Buddha,
the Silent Buddhas (<em>pacceka-buddhā</em>), and all arahant disciples of the
Buddha. For example, in the Mahāparinibbāna Sutta, while the Buddha is
travelling to the place of his final passing away, he is referred to as
the ’Developed One’. {345}</p>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>Surrounded by and amidst the group of monks, the Buddha travelled to
the river Kakutthā,<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn44-1"><a href="#fn-fn44">44</a></sup> and bathed in and drank from its clear,
bright, clean waters…. He travelled to the Mango Grove and said to
the bhikkhu Cundaka: ’Lay out an outer robe folded into four layers
for me to lie upon.’ And thus prompted by the great Adept
(<em>bhāvitatta</em>), Cundaka quickly laid out an outer robe folded into four
layers.</p>
<p><em>D. II. 135.</em></p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>A similar expression is found in the question by the brahmin student
Mettagū:</p>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>Blessed One, I wish to make an inquiry. Please tell me the meaning; I
will thus consider the venerable sir to be a master of knowledge
(<em>vedagū</em>), a fully developed one (<em>bhāvitatta</em>). From where does all this
abundant and diverse suffering in the world come?</p>
<p><em>Sn. 202, in the ’sixteen questions’</em> – soḷasa-pañhā.</p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>The Buddha compared a ’fully developed one’ – an arahant who is
well-versed in the Dhamma (<em>bahussuta</em>) – to a clever ship captain, who
is able to guide many people across the seas and reach their destination
in safety, as is illustrated in the Nāvā Sutta:</p>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>Just as one who boards a sturdy boat, fully equipped with oars and
barge-pole, who is experienced and skilful, knowing the methods of
helmsmanship, is able to assist many others to cross over the waters,
so too, one who is a master of knowledge (<em>vedagū</em>), a fully developed
one (<em>bhāvitatta</em>), a highly learned one (<em>bahussuta</em>), stable and
unshaken by worldly things, endowed with wisdom, is able to help those
who are prepared to listen, in order to investigate the Dhamma and to
reach fulfilment.</p>
<p><em>Sn. 56.</em></p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>The Loka Sutta is similar to the previous sutta, but covers a broader
subject matter, as is evident from the following passage:</p>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>Monks, these three kinds of persons appearing in the world, appear for
the benefit of many, for the happiness of many, for the compassionate
assistance of the world – for the welfare, the benefit, and the
happiness of devas and human beings. Which three?</p>
<p>Here, the Tathāgata appears in the world. He is the Noble One, the
Fully Enlightened One, perfect in conduct and understanding, the
Accomplished One, the Knower of the worlds, the Peerless Trainer of
those to be trained, Teacher of gods and humans, the Awakened One,
Bestower of the Dhamma. He teaches the Dhamma, beautiful in the
beginning, beautiful in the middle, beautiful in the end; he reveals
the holy life of complete purity, both in spirit and in letter. Monks,
this first kind of person, when appearing in the world, appears for
the benefit of many, for the happiness of many, for the compassionate
assistance of the world – for the welfare, the benefit, and the
happiness of devas and human beings. {346}</p>
<p>Furthermore, there is a disciple of that same Teacher who is an
arahant, one whose mind is free from the taints … liberated as a
consequence of thorough knowledge. That disciple teaches the Dhamma,
beautiful in the beginning, beautiful in the middle, beautiful in the
end; he reveals the holy life of complete purity, both in spirit and
in letter. Monks, this is the second kind of person, when appearing in
the world, who appears for the benefit of many, for the happiness of
many, for the compassionate assistance of the world – for the
welfare, the benefit, and the happiness of devas and human beings.</p>
<p>Furthermore, there is a disciple of that same Teacher who is still in
training, still practising, erudite, engaged in virtuous conduct and
practices (<em>sīla-vata</em>). That disciple also teaches the Dhamma,
beautiful in the beginning, beautiful in the middle, beautiful in the
end; he reveals the holy life of complete purity, both in spirit and
in letter. Monks, this is the third kind of person, who when appearing
in the world, appears for the benefit of many, for the happiness of
many, for the compassionate assistance of the world – for the
welfare, the benefit, and the happiness of devas and human beings.</p>
<blockquote>
<p><strong>The Teacher, the Supreme Seeker, is first in the world;<br />
Following him, the disciple, adept (<em>bhāvitatta</em>);<br />
And then the disciple in training (<em>sekha-sāvaka</em>), still
practising,<br />
erudite, engaged in virtuous conduct and practices.<br />
These three kinds of people are supreme<br />
among devas and human beings.<br />
They radiate light, proclaim the truth,<br />
open the door to the Deathless,<br />
And help to liberate the manyfolk from bondage.<br />
Those who follow the noble Path,<br />
well-taught by the Teacher, the unsurpassed Leader –<br />
If they heed the teachings of the Well-Farer –<br />
Will put an end to suffering in this very life.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn45-1"><a href="#fn-fn45">45</a></sup></strong></p>
</blockquote>
<p><em>It. 78-9. Bahujanahita Sutta</em></p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>Note, however, that this term <em>bhāvitatta</em> is most often used in poetic
verses, rather than in prose. This is most likely because it is concise
and can be used easily in verse as a replacement for longer, more
drawn-out terms and phrases. Another reason why this short term
<em>bhāvitatta</em> tends not to be used in prose is because its meaning is not
clearly defined. As there are not the same limitations in prose as there
are in poetic composition, longer terms and phrases can be used for the
sake of clarity.</p>
<p>At this point it is useful to ask what terms and phrases are used in
prose instead of the term <em>bhāvitatta</em>. To answer this question let us
look at an explanation found in the Tipiṭaka. The thirtieth volume of
the Tipiṭaka – the Cūḷaniddesa – which is considered to be a
collection of teachings by the ’commander’ and chief disciple Ven.
Sāriputta, elucidates some of the Buddha’s suttas contained in the
Suttanipāta. One passage in the Cūḷaniddesa explains the term
<em>bhāvitatta</em> as it appears in the question by the brahmin student
Mettagū, cited above: {347}</p>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>How is the Blessed One an Adept (<em>bhāvitatta</em>)? Here, the Blessed One
has developed the body (<em>bhāvita-kāya</em>), developed moral conduct
(<em>bhāvita-sīla</em>), developed the mind (<em>bhāvita-citta</em>), developed
wisdom (<em>bhāvita-paññā</em>).</p>
<p>(He has developed the four foundations of mindfulness, the four right
efforts, the four paths to success, the five faculties, the five
powers, the seven factors of enlightenment, the Eightfold Path. He has
abandoned the defilements, penetrated the unshakeable truth, realized
cessation.)<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn46-1"><a href="#fn-fn46">46</a></sup></p>
<p><em>Kathaṁ bhagavā bhāvitatto bhagavā bhāvitakāyo bhāvitasīlo
bhāvitacitto bhāvitapañño (bhāvitasatipaṭṭhāno bhāvitasammappadhāno
bhāvitaiddhipādo bhāvitindriyo bhāvitabalo bhāvitabojjaṅgo
bhāvitamaggo pahīnakileso paṭividdhākuppo sacchikatanirodho.)</em></p>
<p><em>Nd. II. 14.</em></p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>Now let us look at a prose passage by the Buddha describing the four
areas of self-mastery (<em>bhāvita</em>), which are considered an expansion on
the concept of an ’adept’ (<em>bhāvitatta</em>):</p>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>Monks, there are these five future dangers as yet unarisen that will
arise in the future. You should recognize them and make an effort to
prevent them. What five?</p>
<p>In the future there will be monks who are undeveloped in body,
morality, mind, and wisdom. Despite being undeveloped in body,
morality, mind, and wisdom, they will give full ordination to others
but will not be able to guide them in higher virtuous conduct
(adhisīla), higher mind (adhicitta), and higher wisdom
(adhipaññā).<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn47-1"><a href="#fn-fn47">47</a></sup> These ordainees too will be undeveloped in body,
morality, mind, and wisdom. They in turn will give full ordination to
others but will not be able to guide them in higher virtuous conduct,
higher mind, and higher wisdom. These ordainees too will be
undeveloped in body, morality, mind, and wisdom. Thus, monks, through
corruption of the Dhamma comes corruption of the discipline, and from
corruption of the discipline comes corruption of the Dhamma. This is
the first future danger as yet unarisen that will arise in the future.
You should recognize it and make an effort to prevent it.</p>
<p>Again, in the future there will be monks who are undeveloped in body,
morality, mind, and wisdom. Despite being undeveloped in body,
morality, mind, and wisdom, they will give dependence<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn48-1"><a href="#fn-fn48">48</a></sup> to others
but will not be able to guide them in higher virtuous conduct, higher
mind, and higher wisdom. These pupils too will be undeveloped in body,
morality, mind, and wisdom. {348} They in turn will give dependence to
others but will not be able to guide them in higher virtuous conduct,
higher mind, and higher wisdom. These pupils too will be undeveloped
in body, morality, mind, and wisdom. Thus, monks, through corruption
of the Dhamma comes corruption of the discipline, and from corruption
of the discipline comes corruption of the Dhamma. This is the second
future danger as yet unarisen that will arise in the future. You
should recognize it and make an effort to prevent it.</p>
<p><em>A. III. 105-106.</em></p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>This aforementioned teaching by the Buddha is connected to some
essential Dhamma principles:</p>
<p><em>Bhāvitatta</em><sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn49-1"><a href="#fn-fn49">49</a></sup> is a ’word of praise’ (<em>guṇa-pada</em>), a term describing
the virtue or superior quality of the Buddha and the arahants, as those
who have developed themselves and completed their spiritual training.
When one expands on the meaning of this term into the fourfold mastery
of physical development (<em>bhāvita-kāya</em>), moral development
(<em>bhāvita-sīla</em>), mental development (<em>bhāvita-citta</em>), and wisdom
development (<em>bhāvita-paññā</em>), this pertains to the teaching on the four
kinds of cultivation (<em>bhāvanā</em>): cultivation of the body
(<em>kāya-bhāvanā</em>), virtuous conduct (<em>sīla-bhāvanā</em>), the mind
(<em>citta-bhāvanā</em>), and wisdom (<em>paññā-bhāvanā</em>).</p>
<p>Here, one needs to know some fundamentals of the Pali language. The term
<em>bhāvita</em> is used either as an adjective or an adverb, describing the
qualities of an individual. The term <em>bhāvanā</em>, on the other hand, is a
noun, describing an action, a principle, or a form of practice. There is
a compatibility between these terms in that <em>bhāvita</em> refers to someone
who has fully engaged in <em>bhāvanā</em>. Therefore, one who is developed in
body (<em>bhāvita-kāya</em>) has engaged in physical cultivation
(<em>kāya-bhāvanā</em>), one who is developed in virtuous conduct
(<em>bhāvita-sīla</em>) has engaged in moral cultivation (<em>sīla-bhāvanā</em>), one
who is developed in mind (<em>bhāvita-citta</em>) has engaged in mental
cultivation (<em>citta-bhāvanā</em>), and one who is developed in wisdom
(<em>bhāvita-paññā</em>) has engaged in wisdom cultivation (<em>paññā-bhāvanā</em>).</p>
<p>This is equivalent to saying that an arahant is one who has completed
the fourfold cultivation: he or she is accomplished in physical
cultivation, moral cultivation, mental cultivation, and wisdom
cultivation.</p>
<p>To clarify this matter, here is a brief description of the four kinds of
cultivation (<em>bhāvanā</em>):</p>
<ol>
<li>
<p>Physical cultivation (<em>kāya-bhāvanā</em>): physical development; to
develop one’s relationship to surrounding material things (including
technology) or to the body itself. In particular, to cognize things
by way of the five faculties (eye, ear, nose, tongue, and body)
skilfully, by relating to them in a way that is beneficial, does not
cause harm, increases wholesome qualities, and dispels unwholesome
qualities.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Moral cultivation (<em>sīla-bhāvanā</em>): development of virtuous conduct;
to develop one’s behaviour and one’s social relationships, by
keeping to a moral code, by not abusing or injuring others or
causing conflict, and by living in harmony with others and
supporting one another. {349}</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Mental cultivation (<em>citta-bhāvanā</em>): to develop the mind; to
strengthen and stabilize the mind; to cultivate wholesome qualities,
like lovingkindness, compassion, enthusiasm, diligence, and
patience; to make the mind concentrated, bright, joyous, and clear.</p>
</li>
<li>