-
Notifications
You must be signed in to change notification settings - Fork 1
/
Copy pathintroduction.html
824 lines (784 loc) · 48.9 KB
/
introduction.html
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
210
211
212
213
214
215
216
217
218
219
220
221
222
223
224
225
226
227
228
229
230
231
232
233
234
235
236
237
238
239
240
241
242
243
244
245
246
247
248
249
250
251
252
253
254
255
256
257
258
259
260
261
262
263
264
265
266
267
268
269
270
271
272
273
274
275
276
277
278
279
280
281
282
283
284
285
286
287
288
289
290
291
292
293
294
295
296
297
298
299
300
301
302
303
304
305
306
307
308
309
310
311
312
313
314
315
316
317
318
319
320
321
322
323
324
325
326
327
328
329
330
331
332
333
334
335
336
337
338
339
340
341
342
343
344
345
346
347
348
349
350
351
352
353
354
355
356
357
358
359
360
361
362
363
364
365
366
367
368
369
370
371
372
373
374
375
376
377
378
379
380
381
382
383
384
385
386
387
388
389
390
391
392
393
394
395
396
397
398
399
400
401
402
403
404
405
406
407
408
409
410
411
412
413
414
415
416
417
418
419
420
421
422
423
424
425
426
427
428
429
430
431
432
433
434
435
436
437
438
439
440
441
442
443
444
445
446
447
448
449
450
451
452
453
454
455
456
457
458
459
460
461
462
463
464
465
466
467
468
469
470
471
472
473
474
475
476
477
478
479
480
481
482
483
484
485
486
487
488
489
490
491
492
493
494
495
496
497
498
499
500
501
502
503
504
505
506
507
508
509
510
511
512
513
514
515
516
517
518
519
520
521
522
523
524
525
526
527
528
529
530
531
532
533
534
535
536
537
538
539
540
541
542
543
544
545
546
547
548
549
550
551
552
553
554
555
556
557
558
559
560
561
562
563
564
565
566
567
568
569
570
571
572
573
574
575
576
577
578
579
580
581
582
583
584
585
586
587
588
589
590
591
592
593
594
595
596
597
598
599
600
601
602
603
604
605
606
607
608
609
610
611
612
613
614
615
616
617
618
619
620
621
622
623
624
625
626
627
628
629
630
631
632
633
634
635
636
637
638
639
640
641
642
643
644
645
646
647
648
649
650
651
652
653
654
655
656
657
658
659
660
661
662
663
664
665
666
667
668
669
670
671
672
673
674
675
676
677
678
679
680
681
682
683
684
685
686
687
688
689
690
691
692
693
694
695
696
697
698
699
700
701
702
703
704
705
706
707
708
709
710
711
712
713
714
715
716
717
718
719
720
721
722
723
724
725
726
727
728
729
730
731
732
733
734
735
736
737
738
739
740
741
742
743
744
745
746
747
748
749
750
751
752
753
754
755
756
757
758
759
760
761
762
763
764
765
766
767
768
769
770
771
772
773
774
775
776
777
778
779
780
781
782
783
784
785
786
787
788
789
790
791
792
793
794
795
796
797
798
799
800
801
802
803
804
805
806
807
808
809
810
811
812
813
814
815
816
817
818
819
820
821
822
823
824
<!DOCTYPE HTML>
<html lang="en" class="light sidebar-visible" dir="ltr">
<head>
<!-- Book generated using mdBook -->
<meta charset="UTF-8">
<title>Introduction - Buddhadhamma</title>
<!-- Custom HTML head -->
<meta name="description" content="">
<meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1">
<meta name="theme-color" content="#ffffff">
<link rel="icon" href="favicon.svg">
<link rel="shortcut icon" href="favicon.png">
<link rel="stylesheet" href="css/variables.css">
<link rel="stylesheet" href="css/general.css">
<link rel="stylesheet" href="css/chrome.css">
<link rel="stylesheet" href="css/print.css" media="print">
<!-- Fonts -->
<link rel="stylesheet" href="FontAwesome/css/font-awesome.css">
<link rel="stylesheet" href="fonts/fonts.css">
<!-- Highlight.js Stylesheets -->
<link rel="stylesheet" href="highlight.css">
<link rel="stylesheet" href="tomorrow-night.css">
<link rel="stylesheet" href="ayu-highlight.css">
<!-- Custom theme stylesheets -->
<link rel="stylesheet" href="assets/stylesheets/output-html.css">
<!-- Provide site root to javascript -->
<script>
var path_to_root = "";
var default_theme = window.matchMedia("(prefers-color-scheme: dark)").matches ? "navy" : "light";
</script>
<!-- Start loading toc.js asap -->
<script src="toc.js"></script>
</head>
<body>
<div id="body-container">
<!-- Work around some values being stored in localStorage wrapped in quotes -->
<script>
try {
var theme = localStorage.getItem('mdbook-theme');
var sidebar = localStorage.getItem('mdbook-sidebar');
if (theme.startsWith('"') && theme.endsWith('"')) {
localStorage.setItem('mdbook-theme', theme.slice(1, theme.length - 1));
}
if (sidebar.startsWith('"') && sidebar.endsWith('"')) {
localStorage.setItem('mdbook-sidebar', sidebar.slice(1, sidebar.length - 1));
}
} catch (e) { }
</script>
<!-- Set the theme before any content is loaded, prevents flash -->
<script>
var theme;
try { theme = localStorage.getItem('mdbook-theme'); } catch(e) { }
if (theme === null || theme === undefined) { theme = default_theme; }
const html = document.documentElement;
html.classList.remove('light')
html.classList.add(theme);
html.classList.add("js");
</script>
<input type="checkbox" id="sidebar-toggle-anchor" class="hidden">
<!-- Hide / unhide sidebar before it is displayed -->
<script>
var sidebar = null;
var sidebar_toggle = document.getElementById("sidebar-toggle-anchor");
if (document.body.clientWidth >= 1080) {
try { sidebar = localStorage.getItem('mdbook-sidebar'); } catch(e) { }
sidebar = sidebar || 'visible';
} else {
sidebar = 'hidden';
}
sidebar_toggle.checked = sidebar === 'visible';
html.classList.remove('sidebar-visible');
html.classList.add("sidebar-" + sidebar);
</script>
<nav id="sidebar" class="sidebar" aria-label="Table of contents">
<!-- populated by js -->
<mdbook-sidebar-scrollbox class="sidebar-scrollbox"></mdbook-sidebar-scrollbox>
<noscript>
<iframe class="sidebar-iframe-outer" src="toc.html"></iframe>
</noscript>
<div id="sidebar-resize-handle" class="sidebar-resize-handle">
<div class="sidebar-resize-indicator"></div>
</div>
</nav>
<div id="page-wrapper" class="page-wrapper">
<div class="page">
<div id="menu-bar-hover-placeholder"></div>
<div id="menu-bar" class="menu-bar sticky">
<div class="left-buttons">
<label id="sidebar-toggle" class="icon-button" for="sidebar-toggle-anchor" title="Toggle Table of Contents" aria-label="Toggle Table of Contents" aria-controls="sidebar">
<i class="fa fa-bars"></i>
</label>
<button id="theme-toggle" class="icon-button" type="button" title="Change theme" aria-label="Change theme" aria-haspopup="true" aria-expanded="false" aria-controls="theme-list">
<i class="fa fa-paint-brush"></i>
</button>
<ul id="theme-list" class="theme-popup" aria-label="Themes" role="menu">
<li role="none"><button role="menuitem" class="theme" id="light">Light</button></li>
<li role="none"><button role="menuitem" class="theme" id="rust">Rust</button></li>
<li role="none"><button role="menuitem" class="theme" id="coal">Coal</button></li>
<li role="none"><button role="menuitem" class="theme" id="navy">Navy</button></li>
<li role="none"><button role="menuitem" class="theme" id="ayu">Ayu</button></li>
</ul>
<button id="search-toggle" class="icon-button" type="button" title="Search. (Shortkey: s)" aria-label="Toggle Searchbar" aria-expanded="false" aria-keyshortcuts="S" aria-controls="searchbar">
<i class="fa fa-search"></i>
</button>
</div>
<h1 class="menu-title">Buddhadhamma</h1>
<div class="right-buttons">
<a href="print.html" title="Print this book" aria-label="Print this book">
<i id="print-button" class="fa fa-print"></i>
</a>
</div>
</div>
<div id="search-wrapper" class="hidden">
<form id="searchbar-outer" class="searchbar-outer">
<input type="search" id="searchbar" name="searchbar" placeholder="Search this book ..." aria-controls="searchresults-outer" aria-describedby="searchresults-header">
</form>
<div id="searchresults-outer" class="searchresults-outer hidden">
<div id="searchresults-header" class="searchresults-header"></div>
<ul id="searchresults">
</ul>
</div>
</div>
<!-- Apply ARIA attributes after the sidebar and the sidebar toggle button are added to the DOM -->
<script>
document.getElementById('sidebar-toggle').setAttribute('aria-expanded', sidebar === 'visible');
document.getElementById('sidebar').setAttribute('aria-hidden', sidebar !== 'visible');
Array.from(document.querySelectorAll('#sidebar a')).forEach(function(link) {
link.setAttribute('tabIndex', sidebar === 'visible' ? 0 : -1);
});
</script>
<div id="content" class="content">
<main>
<h1 id="introduction"><a class="header" href="#introduction">Introduction</a></h1>
<div class="opening-illustration">
<p><a href="https://buddhadhamma.github.io/includes/images/illustrations/introduction-buddha-trade.pdf"><img src="./includes/images/illustrations/introduction-buddha-trade.jpg" alt="image" /></a></p>
<p class="caption">
<a href="https://buddhadhamma.github.io/includes/images/illustrations/introduction-buddha-trade.pdf" target="_blank">
(Open large size)
</a>
</p>
</div>
<p>People today frequently pose the question whether Buddhism is a
religion, a philosophy, or simply a way of life. This query gives rise
to all sorts of debates and opinions, which often just create confusion.</p>
<p>Although this book <em>Buddhadhamma</em> is written as a form of philosophical
treatise, I will not engage in the aforementioned debate.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn1-1"><a href="#fn-fn1">1</a></sup> My focus
will simply be on what is stated in the Buddha’s teachings – on the
gist of these teachings. As for the question whether Buddhism is a
philosophy or not, it is up to various philosophical systems themselves
to determine whether Buddhism fits their criteria. Buddhism remains what
it is; it is unaffected by these judgements and interpretations. The
only specification I wish to make here is that any teaching or doctrine
on truth that is only intended as an intellectual exercise of logic or
reason, and contains no corresponding elements for practical application
in everyday life, is not Buddhism, especially the original and genuine
teachings given by the Buddha himself, which are referred to as
Buddha-Dhamma.</p>
<p>It is a difficult task to compile the Buddha’s teachings, especially on
the premise that one is presenting the true or genuine teachings, even
if one cites passages from the Pali Canon which are considered the words
of the Buddha. This is because these teachings are copious and contain
various dimensions or levels of profundity, and also because imparting
them accurately depends on the intelligence and sincerity of the person
presenting them. It may happen that two people with divergent opinions
are both able to quote passages from the sacred texts supporting their
own points of view. To determine the truth is dependent on how
accurately one grasps the essence of these teachings, and on how
consistent the link is between one’s theories and the evidence one uses
to support them. In many cases the supporting evidence is not
comprehensive enough, and thus it is inevitable that the presentation of
Buddha-Dhamma often reflects the opinions and understanding of the
person interpreting it.</p>
<p>To clarify one’s analysis of the teachings, it is helpful to examine the
life and conduct of the Buddha, the supreme teacher, who is the origin
and source of these teachings. {2} Although one may argue that the
stories of the Buddha’s activities come from the same sources as the
formal teachings, nonetheless they are very useful for reflection.
Occasionally, the Buddha’s actions reflect his aims and wishes more
clearly than the formal teachings in the scriptures.</p>
<p>From the evidence in the scriptures and from other historical sources,
one can draw a rough sketch of the events and the social environment at
the time of the Buddha as follows:</p>
<p>The Buddha was born in the Indian subcontinent about 2,600 years ago. He
was born among the warrior caste (<em>kṣatriyaḥ</em>/<em>katthiya</em>), and named
Prince Siddhattha. He was the son of King Suddhodana, the ruler of the
Sakyan country, which lay at the northeast of the Indian subcontinent,
adjoining the Himalayan mountain range. As a prince, and in accord with
the wishes of the royal family, he was fully provided with worldly
pleasures, which he enjoyed for twenty-nine years, during which time he
was married and had a son.</p>
<p>At this time, absolute monarchies were in the ascendency and were trying
to expand their empires by waging war. Many other states, especially the
republics, who ruled by a general assembly based on unanimous decisions,
were gradually losing their power. Some of these states were conquered
and incorporated into larger states, while others that remained strong
were under duress, aware that war could break out at any time. And the
large, powerful nations were often at war with one another.</p>
<p>Trade and commerce were burgeoning, giving rise to a new group of highly
influential wealthy merchants (<em>seṭṭhi</em>), whose prestige and authority
began to extend even to the royal courts.</p>
<p>According to the teachings of Brahmanism, people were divided into four
social classes or castes (<em>vaṇṇa</em>). People’s privileges and social
standing, as well as their occupations, were determined by their caste.
Although Hindu historians claim that the caste system at that time was
not yet very strict, members of the class of manual workers
(<em>śūdra</em>/<em>sudda</em>) were not entitled to listen to or to recite passages
of the Vedas, the sacred texts of the brahmins. These restrictions
became increasingly rigid and severe; śūdra who defied these injunctions
and studied the Vedas were penalized with capital punishment. Moreover,
outcastes (<em>caṇḍāla</em>) were not entitled to any form of formal education.
The sole factor for determining one’s caste was birth, and the members
of the brahmin class claimed to be superior to all others.</p>
<p>The brahmins safeguarded and upheld the traditions of Brahmanism. They
developed ever greater arcane and mysterious teachings and rituals,
which became increasingly irrational. Rituals were observed not simply
for religious purposes, but also as a way for powerful rulers to
demonstrate their importance. And the priests who conducted these
rituals gained personal advantage and riches.</p>
<p>These ceremonies and rituals increased selfishness in those people
seeking wealth and pleasure. At the same time, they caused distress for
members of the downtrodden lower classes – the slaves, servants, and
labourers – and they caused agony to those countless animals
slaughtered as a sacrifice.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn2-1"><a href="#fn-fn2">2</a></sup> {3}</p>
<p>During the same period, one group of brahmins doubted whether these
religious rituals actually lead to eternal life, and they began to
devote themselves to the contemplation of immortality and the path to
its realization. In their search for truth, many of them separated
themselves from society and resorted to the forests in seclusion. Such
renunciants, who renounced the household life and went forth in search
of the true meaning of life, were collectively referred to as <em>samaṇa</em>.</p>
<p>The brahmanical teachings during this time – the era of the Upanishads
– was full of contradictions. Some religious factions affirmed the
effectiveness of the established rituals, while other factions denounced
these very same rituals. There were conflicting views on the subject of
immortality and the soul (<em>ātman</em>). Some brahmins claimed that the
<em>ātman</em> is equivalent to <em>brahmin</em> (Brahmā/Brahma; the godhead; the
divine essence); they claimed that Brahma generates and permeates all
things, and is ineffable, as is expressed in the phrase, <em>neti neti</em>
(’not this, not that’). They believed that the <em>ātman</em>/<em>brahmin</em> unity
is the supreme goal of spiritual practice. They engaged in religious
debates on this subject, while at the same time jealously guarding
knowledge on this matter within their own circles.</p>
<p>Meanwhile, another group of renunciants were disenchanted with the
seeming meaninglessness of life, and practised in the hope of attaining
exceptional states of mind or of reaching the deathless state. Some of
them engaged in extreme forms of self-mortification, by fasting and
undertaking strange and unusual ascetic practices, which ordinary people
would not believe were possible. Others developed the concentrative
absorptions (<em>jhāna</em>), reaching the fine-material attainments
(<em>rūpa-samāpatti</em>) and the formless attainments (<em>arūpa-samāpatti</em>),
while some became so proficient in the jhānas that they were able to
perform marvels of psychic powers.</p>
<p>Included among the groups of renunciants were those who wandered from
village to village, establishing themselves as teachers and expounding
their various religious views by engaging in religious debate and
dialectic.</p>
<p>The search for meaning and the propagation of various beliefs and
teachings proceeded in an intense and energetic manner, leading to
numerous ideologies and doctrines.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn3-1"><a href="#fn-fn3">3</a></sup> As is mentioned in the
scriptures, there were six major established doctrines at the time of
the Buddha.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn4-1"><a href="#fn-fn4">4</a></sup></p>
<p>To sum up, one group of people was growing in wealth and power,
revelling in sensual pleasures and seeking increased riches. At the same
time, many other people were neglected, and their social standing and
quality of living was declining. Another group of people was separating
itself from society, bent on discovering philosophical truths, but they
too did not take much interest in the conditions of society.</p>
<p>Prince Siddhattha enjoyed worldly pleasures for twenty-nine years. Not
only did his family provide him with such pleasures, they also prevented
him from seeing firsthand the lives of the ordinary folk, which were
full of suffering. This suffering, however, could not be concealed from
him forever. The problems and afflictions of human beings – most
notably aging, sickness, and death – preoccupied the prince and caused
him to seek a solution. {4}</p>
<p>When the prince reflected on these social problems, he saw a group of
privileged people who pursued their own personal comforts, competing
with one another and indulging in pleasure, without any care or concern
for the suffering of others. They were enslaved by material things. In
times of happiness, they were engrossed in their own selfish pursuits;
in times of affliction, they were obsessed with their own distress and
despair. In the end, they grew old and sick, and died in vain. Another
group of people, the disadvantaged, had no opportunity to prosper and
were desperately abused and oppressed. They too aged, grew ill, and died
in a seemingly meaningless way.</p>
<p>Seeing his pleasures and delights as pointless, the prince became
disillusioned with his own life. Although at first his search was
unsuccessful, he began to look for a solution, for a way to discover
lasting and meaningful happiness. His life full of temptations and
distractions was not conducive to his reflections. In the end he
recognized that the renunciant life is uncomplicated, free from worry,
and conducive to spiritual knowledge. He considered that this way of
life would probably help him solve these universal human problems, and
he may very well encounter renunciants who could teach him valuable
lessons.</p>
<p>This line of thinking prompted the prince to relinquish the princely
life and go forth as a renunciant. He wandered around studying with
various teachers, learning the methods of spiritual endeavour (<em>yoga</em>)
and developing meditation, until he reached the concentrative
attainments (<em>jhāna-samāpatti</em>) – including the highest formless
attainments (<em>arūpa-samāpatti</em>) – and became proficient at psychic
powers (<em>iddhi-pāṭihāriya</em>). Eventually, he practised extreme
austerities.</p>
<p>In the end he came to the conclusion that none of the methods belonging
to these other renunciants were able to solve his conundrum. When he
compared his present life to his earlier life in the palace, he realized
that both were expressions of extremes. He decided to follow his own
reflections and investigations, until he finally reached complete
awakening.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn5-1"><a href="#fn-fn5">5</a></sup> Later, when he proclaimed to others the truth, the
Dhamma,<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn6-1"><a href="#fn-fn6">6</a></sup> that he had discovered, he referred to it as the middle
truth (<em>majjhena-dhamma</em>) or the middle teaching
(<em>majjhena-dhammadesanā</em>), and he referred to the system of practice
that he laid down for others as the middle way (<em>majjhimā-paṭipadā</em>; the
’middle path of practice’).</p>
<p>The Buddhist perspective is that both a life of greed and indulgence –
abandoning oneself to the stream of mental defilements – and a life of
complete retreat from the world – giving up all involvement in and
responsibility for society, and afflicting oneself with hardship – are
incorrect and extreme forms of practice. Neither of these can lead
people to a truly meaningful way of life.</p>
<p>After his awakening the Buddha returned to the wider society and began
to teach the Dhamma in an earnest and devoted manner for the wellbeing
of the manyfolk. He devoted himself to this task for the remaining
forty-five years of his life.</p>
<p>The Buddha realized that sharing the teachings and helping others would
be most effective through the renunciant form. He thus encouraged many
members of the upper classes to renounce their wealth, go forth into the
renunciant life, and realize the Dhamma. These individuals then
participated in the work of self-sacrifice, devoting themselves to
benefiting others, by wandering around the country and meeting with
people of all social classes. {5}</p>
<p>The monastic community itself is an important medium for solving social
problems. For example, every person, regardless of which caste or social
class he or she comes from – even from the class of outcastes – has
the same rights and privileges to be ordained, to train, and to reach
the highest goal.</p>
<p>Merchants and householders, who are not yet prepared to fully renounce
their possessions, may live as male and female lay disciples, supporting
the monastic sangha’s activities and duties, and assisting other people
by sharing their wealth.</p>
<p>The true objective and extent of activities by the Buddha and his
disciples is summed up by the Buddha’s injunction, which he gave when he
sent out the first generation of disciples to proclaim the teachings:</p>
<div class="sutta">
<blockquote>
<p>Bhikkhus, wander forth for the welfare and happiness of the manyfolk,
out of compassion for the world, for the benefit, welfare and
happiness of gods and humans.</p>
<p><em>Vin. I. 20-21.</em></p>
</blockquote>
</div>
<p>The Pāsādika Sutta offers a summary of how the Buddhist teachings are
connected to society and how they benefit various groups of people:</p>
<p>The ’holy life’ (<em>brahmacariya</em> = the Buddhist religion) is only
considered to have reached fulfilment, to be of benefit to the manyfolk,
and to be firmly established – what is referred to as ’well-declared by
devas<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn7-1"><a href="#fn-fn7">7</a></sup> and human beings’ – when the following factors are complete:</p>
<ol>
<li>
<p>The Teacher (<em>satthā</em>) is distinguished, experienced, mature, and
advanced in seniority.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>There are bhikkhu elder disciples with expert knowledge, who are
well-trained and fearless, who have realized the unsurpassed safety
from bondage, who are able to teach the Dhamma to others
effectively, and who successfully refute (opposing) doctrines
correctly and in line with the Dhamma. Moreover, there are bhikkhus
of middle-standing and newly ordained monks who have the same
abilities.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>There are bhikkhuni<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn8-1"><a href="#fn-fn8">8</a></sup> disciples – nuns who are senior, of
middle-standing, and newly ordained – who have the same abilities.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>There are male lay disciples, both those who live a celibate life
and those who live at home and enjoy the pleasures of the senses,
who have the same abilities.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>There are female lay disciples, both those who live a celibate life
and those who live at home and enjoy the pleasures of the senses,
who have the same abilities.</p>
</li>
</ol>
<p>Even lacking female householders with such virtuous qualities means that
Buddhism is not yet prospering and complete.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn9-1"><a href="#fn-fn9">9</a></sup></p>
<p>This sutta reveals how the Buddhist teachings are intended for everyone,
both renunciants and householders. Buddhism embraces all of society. {6}</p>
<h2 id="primary-attributes-of-buddha-dhamma"><a class="header" href="#primary-attributes-of-buddha-dhamma">Primary Attributes of Buddha-Dhamma</a></h2>
<p>The two main attributes of Buddha-Dhamma may be summarized as follows:</p>
<ol>
<li>
<p>It reveals ’middle’ (i.e. ’objective’) principles of truth, and is
thus referred to as the middle truth (<em>majjhena-dhamma</em>) or the
middle teaching (<em>majjhena-dhammadesanā</em>). It reflects the truth in
strict line with cause and effect and according to laws of nature.
It has been revealed solely for the benefit of practical application
in real life. It does not promote an attempt to realize the truth by
creating various theories and dogmas based on philosophical
conjecture and inference, which are consequently adhered to, debated
and defended.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>It lays down a system of practice referred to as the ’middle way’
(<em>majjhimā-paṭipadā</em>), which acts as a guideline for those
undergoing spiritual training. These practitioners gain a clear
insight into their lives, steer away from credulity, and aim for
those fruits of practice accessible in this lifetime, namely:
happiness, purity, enlightenment, peace, and liberation. In
practical application the Middle Way is connected to other factors,
such as one’s life as a renunciant or life as a householder.</p>
</li>
</ol>
<p>Buddhism is a religion of action (<em>kamma-vāda</em>; <em>kiriya-vāda</em>), a
religion of effort (<em>viriya-vāda</em>).<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn10-1"><a href="#fn-fn10">10</a></sup> It is not a religion of
supplication nor is it a religion based on hope.</p>
<p>The practical benefits of the teachings are available to everyone no
matter what his or her situation, beginning with the present moment.
Regardless of a person’s station in or condition of life, everyone can
access and utilize these teachings as is suitable to his or her
circumstances, both in terms of understanding the Middle Truth and of
walking the Middle Way. If one is still anxious or concerned about life
after this world, one is encouraged to devote oneself through proper
conduct to generating the desired favourable conditions now, until one
gains confidence and dispels all worries and fears about the future
life.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn11-1"><a href="#fn-fn11">11</a></sup></p>
<p>Every person is equally eligible according to nature to reach the fruits
of spiritual practice. Although people’s spiritual abilities differ,
everyone should have equal opportunity to develop these wholesome
results of practice according to his or her ability. Although each one
of us must generate these results through individual effort – by
reflecting on one’s full responsibility in these matters – we are all
important agents for assisting the spiritual practice of others. For
this reason, the Buddha stressed the two chief principles of heedfulness
(<em>appamāda</em>) and virtuous friendship (<em>kalyāṇamittatā</em>). On the one
hand, one takes full responsibility for one’s own life, and on the other
hand one recognizes the supreme value of wholesome external influences.</p>
<p>The Buddha focused on several major tasks. One of these was his attempt
to eliminate naive and superstitious beliefs around misguided religious
ceremonies, in particular the practice of animal sacrifice (not to
mention human sacrifice), by pointing out their harmful effects and
overall fruitlessness. {7}</p>
<p>There were several reasons why the Buddha gave so much emphasis to
abandoning the practice of sacrifices. First, these practices caused
people to seek help from divine intervention. Second, they caused great
hardship and affliction for other people and living creatures. Third,
they increased selfishness and craving for material rewards. Fourth,
they brought about a preoccupation with the future, rather than a wish
to improve the present state of affairs. To counteract these detrimental
practices, the Buddha emphasized generosity and service to society.</p>
<p>The second thing that the Buddha tried to abolish was the caste system,
which used people’s birth as a way to restrict their privileges and
opportunities, both in society and in regard to spiritual development.
He established the monastic community, which welcomes people from all
social classes into a system of equality, just as the ocean receives all
rivers, as one unified and whole body of water.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn12-1"><a href="#fn-fn12">12</a></sup> This then led to
the institution of monasteries, which later became vital centres of
education and the spreading of culture, to the point that Hinduism
followed suit and created their own monastic institutions about
1,400-1,700 years after the Buddha.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn13-1"><a href="#fn-fn13">13</a></sup></p>
<p>According to the principles of Buddha-Dhamma, both women and men are
equally able to realize the highest goal of Buddhism. Not long after the
Buddha had established the bhikkhu sangha, he also established the
bhikkhuni sangha, despite social conditions being unfavourable to a
female monastic order. The Buddha was fully aware of how difficult it
would be to create a suitable form for women to live the renunciant
life. He exercised great care in its establishment at a time when
extreme restrictions around spiritual practice were placed on women by
the religions of the Vedic period, to the extent that one may say the
door had been closed to them.</p>
<p>The Buddha taught the Dhamma using vernacular language – the language
used by the common people – so that everyone, regardless of his or her
station in life or level of education, would be able to benefit. This
was in contrast to Brahmanism, which insisted on the sacredness of the
Vedic texts and used various means to reserve higher religious knowledge
within a narrow, elite group. Specifically, the brahmins used the
Sanskrit language, the knowledge of which was confined to their own
group, to transmit and guard the texts. Later, some individuals asked
the Buddha for permission to preserve and transmit the Buddhist
teachings in the Vedic language, but he rejected this proposal and had
the monks continue to use the language of the common people.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn14-1"><a href="#fn-fn14">14</a></sup></p>
<p>Furthermore, the Buddha absolutely refused to waste time debating on
matters of truth through philosophical speculation – on matters which
cannot be empirically proven by way of rational discussion. If people
came to him with such questions, the Buddha would remain silent. He
would then lead the person back to everyday, practical matters.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn15-1"><a href="#fn-fn15">15</a></sup>
Those things to be understood by way of speech he would share with
others by speaking; those things to be understood by way of sight he
would reveal to others to see. He would use the most direct and
appropriate method according to the circumstances.</p>
<p>The Buddha used many different methods when teaching the Dhamma, so that
everyone may benefit. His teachings contain many layers: those aimed for
householders and members of mainstream society, and those aimed for
individuals who have relinquished the household life. There are
teachings focusing on material benefits and others focusing on deeper,
spiritual benefits. {8}</p>
<p>Because the Buddha taught within a brahmanic culture and was surrounded
by various religious belief systems, he was required to engage with
spiritual terms used by these other traditions. As the Buddha wished for
his teachings to reach the greatest number of people within a short
period of time, he applied a unique approach in regard to these terms.
Rather than directly refuting or discrediting people’s beliefs
associated with these terms, he questioned or challenged the true
meanings of these terms. He did not use an aggressive approach; instead,
he promoted a natural form of transformation through understanding and
spiritual development.</p>
<p>To accomplish this the Buddha used some of these already established
spiritual terms and gave them new meanings in line with Buddha-Dhamma.
For example, he defined the term <em>brahma</em>/<em>brahmā</em> (’Brahma,’ ’divine,’
’sublime,’ ’sacred’) as referring to one kind of celestial (yet mortal)
being; in other contexts it was used in reference to parents. He altered
the concept of worshipping the six cardinal directions into the notion
of maintaining and honouring one’s social relationships. He changed the
meaning of the sacred brahmanic fire worship, by the three kinds of
sacrificial ceremonies, into fulfilling a responsibility vis-à-vis three
kinds of individuals in society. And he transformed the factor
determining a person as a brahmin (<em>brāhmaṇa</em>; ’one who is sacred,’ ’one
who has divine knowledge’) and as noble (<em>ariya</em>; ’cultured,’
’civilized’) from a person’s birth into a person’s conduct and spiritual
development.</p>
<p>Occasionally, the Buddha encouraged his disciples to draw upon wholesome
and beneficial aspects of other religious traditions. He acknowledged
and approved of any teaching that is correct and connected to virtue,
considering that such righteousness and virtue is a universal aspect of
nature. In the case that specific principles of practice by these other
traditions had varying interpretations, the Buddha explained which ones
are correct and which ones are false. He sanctioned only the practice of
what is correct and wholesome.</p>
<p>The Buddha pointed out that faulty or harmful practices observed by
other religious traditions were sometimes a result of a decline or
degeneracy within these traditions themselves. The original teachings
espoused by these traditions were sometimes virtuous and correct. He
occasionally described these original wholesome teachings. Examples of
this include his historical explanations on the notions of ’religious
austerity’ (<em>tapa</em>), the offering of sacrifices (<em>yañña</em>), the
principles of leadership in regard to social assistance, and the duties
of a brahmin (<em>brāhmaṇa-dhamma</em>).<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn16-1"><a href="#fn-fn16">16</a></sup></p>
<p>In the centuries following the Buddha’s death, after his teachings had
spread to different areas, numerous disparities arose in people’s
understanding of Buddha-Dhamma. This occurred for various reasons: those
people who transmitted the teachings had different levels of training,
understanding, and aptitude, and they interpreted the teachings in
different ways; people began to mix in beliefs from other religious
traditions; local cultures exerted an influence on people’s ideas and
understanding; and some aspects of the teachings grew in prominence
while other aspects fell into obscurity, due to the interest,
predisposition, and skill of those individuals who safeguarded the
teachings. These disparities resulted in the breaking off into various
schools (<em>nikāya</em>), as is evident today in the division between
Theravada Buddhism and Mahayana Buddhism, along with numerous other
subsidiary schools and lineages. {9}</p>
<p>Although the Theravada tradition is known for its precision and accuracy
in preserving the original standards and teachings, it could not escape
some changes and alterations. The authenticity and validity of some
teachings, even those that are contained in the scriptures, are debated
among members of the current generation, who often seek proof in order
to either substantiate their own opinions or repudiate the views of
others. Discrepancies are especially evident in the views and practices
upheld by the general public. In some cases, these views and practices
seem to stand in direct opposition to the original teachings, or they
have almost developed into another religious ideology, perhaps even one
refuted by the original teachings.</p>
<p>Take for example the understanding in Thailand of the word <em>kamma</em>
(Sanskrit: ’karma’). Most Buddhists in Thailand when they encounter this
word think of the past, in particular of deeds from past lives. They
focus on the harmful effects in the present of bad deeds from past lives
and on the negative results of previous evil actions. In most cases,
their understanding is shaped by a collection of such thoughts. When
compared to the true definitions of <em>kamma</em> in the scriptures, one can
see how remote some of these ideas are from genuine Buddha-Dhamma.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn17-1"><a href="#fn-fn17">17</a></sup></p>
<p>In this book the author<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn18-1"><a href="#fn-fn18">18</a></sup> is attempting to present Buddha-Dhamma in a
way that is as true and accurate as possible. Because it is considered
superfluous to this task, these divergent views, definitions, and
practices are not discussed.</p>
<p>The source of the material for this book is the collection of Buddhist
scriptures, which, unless otherwise specified, refers to the Tipiṭaka
(Pali Canon). It is generally accepted that this text is the most
accurate and complete compilation of the Buddha’s teachings. The author
has selected those teachings in the Pali Canon which are deemed most
authentic and accurate, by applying the principles of compatibility and
coherence in respect to the overall body of Theravada scripture. As an
added assurance in this undertaking, the author considers the Buddha’s
conduct as a complement to the formal Dhamma teachings.</p>
<p>Having selected these guidelines, the author is confident that he has
accurately explained and presented the true essence of Buddha-Dhamma.</p>
<p>On a fundamental level, however, the accuracy of this presentation
depends on the extent of the author’s wisdom and intelligence, as well
as any unacknowledged bias or prejudice. Let us simply conclude that
this is one attempt to present the Buddha’s teachings in the most
accurate way, based on specific methods of scholarship in which the
author has the most confidence. {10}</p>
<p>One may separate Buddha-Dhamma into two parts, as matters of truth
(<em>sacca-dhamma</em>) and matters of conduct (<em>cariya-dhamma</em>): as theory and
practice. The former is defined as those teachings pertaining to
reality, to manifestations of truth, to nature, and to the laws and
processes of nature. The latter is defined as those teachings pertaining
to principles of practice or behaviour, to benefiting in a practical way
from one’s knowledge of reality or one’s understanding of the laws of
nature. <em>Sacca-dhamma</em> is equated with nature and natural truths;
<em>cariya-dhamma</em> is equated with knowing how to act in response to such
truths. Within this entire teaching, no significance is given to
supernatural agents – to any alleged forces over and above nature –
for example of a creator God.</p>
<p>In order to do justice to the entire range and scope of Buddha-Dhamma as
an integrated system, one should describe both of these aspects. That
is, one should first reveal the theoretical teachings, followed by an
analysis of how to apply these teachings in an effective and valuable
way.</p>
<p>For this reason, the chapters in this book, each of which deals with a
specific aspect of truth, also contain guidelines on how to apply these
truths in a practical way. For example, at the end of the second chapter
dealing with different kinds of knowledge, there is a section on the
practical meaning and benefit of such knowledge. Moreover, the main body
of <em>Buddhadhamma</em> follows this format: the first main section pertains
to specific laws of nature, and is titled ’The Middle Teachings.’ The
second main section pertains to a practical application of such laws in
everyday life, and is titled ’The Middle Way.’</p>
<p>Although the presentation in this book may seem unorthodox, it
corresponds to an original style of teaching. It begins with those
aspects of life that are problematic, and it then traces back to the
source of such problems. The analysis continues to a deeper inspection
of the causes of suffering, the ultimate goal of spiritual practice, and
the practical methods for solving problems and for realizing the goal.
Indeed, the presentation is consistent with the Four Noble Truths.<sup class="footnote-reference" id="fr-fn19-1"><a href="#fn-fn19">19</a></sup></p>
<div class="illustration">
<p><a href="https://buddhadhamma.github.io/includes/images/illustrations/bodhi-leaves-page-trade.pdf"><img src="./includes/images/illustrations/bodhi-leaves-page-trade.jpg" alt="image" /></a></p>
<p class="caption">
<a href="https://buddhadhamma.github.io/includes/images/illustrations/bodhi-leaves-page-trade.pdf" target="_blank">
(Open large size)
</a>
</p>
</div>
<div class="illustration">
<p><a href="https://buddhadhamma.github.io/includes/images/illustrations/dhammacakka-trade.pdf"><img src="./includes/images/illustrations/dhammacakka-trade.jpg" alt="image" /></a></p>
<p class="caption">
<a href="https://buddhadhamma.github.io/includes/images/illustrations/dhammacakka-trade.pdf" target="_blank">
(Open large size)
</a>
</p>
<p><a href="https://buddhadhamma.github.io/includes/images/illustrations/bodhi-leaf-lineart-trade.pdf"><img src="./includes/images/illustrations/bodhi-leaf-lineart-trade.jpg" alt="image" /></a></p>
<p class="caption">
<a href="https://buddhadhamma.github.io/includes/images/illustrations/bodhi-leaf-lineart-trade.pdf" target="_blank">
(Open large size)
</a>
</p>
</div>
<div class="footnotes">
<aside class="footnote-definition" id="fn-fn1"><sup class="footnote-definition-label">1</sup>
<p>When I began to write this book, I was invited to compile the
Buddha’s teachings (Buddha-Dhamma) into chapters by following a
philosophical approach. <a href="#fr-fn1-1">↩</a></p>
</aside>
<aside class="footnote-definition" id="fn-fn2"><sup class="footnote-definition-label">2</sup>
<p>See, e.g.: Vāseṭṭha Sutta (Sn. 115-16) and Brāhmaṇadhammika Sutta
(Sn. 52-5). <a href="#fr-fn2-1">↩</a></p>
</aside>
<aside class="footnote-definition" id="fn-fn3"><sup class="footnote-definition-label">3</sup>
<p>According to the evidence in the scriptures, the doctrines of the
renunciants and brahmins can be divided into sixty-two different
views or belief systems (D. I. 13-45). <a href="#fr-fn3-1">↩</a></p>
</aside>
<aside class="footnote-definition" id="fn-fn4"><sup class="footnote-definition-label">4</sup>
<p>For a closer examination of the conditions in the Indian
subcontinent at the time of the Buddha, see, e.g.: G. C. Pande,
<em>Studies in the Origins of Buddhism</em> (India: University of
Allahabad, 1957), pp. 310-368. <a href="#fr-fn4-1">↩</a></p>
</aside>
<aside class="footnote-definition" id="fn-fn5"><sup class="footnote-definition-label">5</sup>
<p>For more on this period of the Buddha’s life, see, e.g. the
Sagārava Sutta: M. II. 209-213. [Trans.: this sutta is also known
as the Saṅgārava Sutta.] <a href="#fr-fn5-1">↩</a></p>
</aside>
<aside class="footnote-definition" id="fn-fn6"><sup class="footnote-definition-label">6</sup>
<p>Trans: Sanskrit: <em>dharma</em>. The word <em>dhamma</em> has many definitions;
some of the most common are: thing, phenomenon, quality, property,
nature, natural law, truth, reality, virtue, righteousness, the
teachings revealed by the Buddha, and mind object. <a href="#fr-fn6-1">↩</a></p>
</aside>
<aside class="footnote-definition" id="fn-fn7"><sup class="footnote-definition-label">7</sup>
<p>Trans: <em>deva</em> = god; divine being. <a href="#fr-fn7-1">↩</a></p>
</aside>
<aside class="footnote-definition" id="fn-fn8"><sup class="footnote-definition-label">8</sup>
<p>Trans: Pali: <em>bhikkhunī</em>. For the sake of simplicity, I use the
spelling ’bhikkhuni’ in this text. <a href="#fr-fn8-1">↩</a></p>
</aside>
<aside class="footnote-definition" id="fn-fn9"><sup class="footnote-definition-label">9</sup>
<p>See the Pāsādika Sutta: D. III. 122-5. Note how the term
<em>brahmacariya</em> (’holy life’, ’sublime life’) incorporates
householders. <a href="#fr-fn9-1">↩</a></p>
</aside>
<aside class="footnote-definition" id="fn-fn10"><sup class="footnote-definition-label">10</sup>
<p>E.g.: A. I. 286-7. <a href="#fr-fn10-1">↩</a></p>
</aside>
<aside class="footnote-definition" id="fn-fn11"><sup class="footnote-definition-label">11</sup>
<p>E.g.: S. V. 386. <a href="#fr-fn11-1">↩</a></p>
</aside>
<aside class="footnote-definition" id="fn-fn12"><sup class="footnote-definition-label">12</sup>
<p>See, e.g.: A. IV. 202-203; D. III. 97-8. <a href="#fr-fn12-1">↩</a></p>
</aside>
<aside class="footnote-definition" id="fn-fn13"><sup class="footnote-definition-label">13</sup>
<p>See, e.g.: B. V. Bapat, <em>2500 Years of Buddhism</em>, (1959), p. 335,
and: S. Dutt, <em>Buddhist Monks and Monasteries of India</em>, (1962), p.
210. <a href="#fr-fn13-1">↩</a></p>
</aside>
<aside class="footnote-definition" id="fn-fn14"><sup class="footnote-definition-label">14</sup>
<p>See: Vin. II. 139. <a href="#fr-fn14-1">↩</a></p>
</aside>
<aside class="footnote-definition" id="fn-fn15"><sup class="footnote-definition-label">15</sup>
<p>See, e.g.: A. V. 193-8; M. I. 426-32. <a href="#fr-fn15-1">↩</a></p>
</aside>
<aside class="footnote-definition" id="fn-fn16"><sup class="footnote-definition-label">16</sup>
<p>See: A. IV. 41; A. V. 190-91; Sn. 51-53; see also the following
subject material. <a href="#fr-fn16-1">↩</a></p>
</aside>
<aside class="footnote-definition" id="fn-fn17"><sup class="footnote-definition-label">17</sup>
<p>Thai people have developed similarly unique meanings of other
concepts and terms, e.g.: <em>ārammaṇa</em> (’sense object’), <em>viññāṇa</em>
(’consciousness’), <em>pāramī</em> (’spiritual perfection’), <em>santosa</em>
(’contentment’), <em>upekkhā</em> (’equanimity’), <em>adhiṭṭhāna</em>
(’determination’), <em>parikamma</em> (’preliminary meditation exercise’),
<em>bhāvanā</em> (’cultivation’), <em>vipassanā</em> (’insight’), <em>kāma</em> (’sense
desire’), <em>lokiya</em> (’mundane’), <em>lokuttara</em> (’transcendent’),
<em>puñña</em> (’merit’), <em>icchā</em> (’longing’), etc. These terms are now
used either in a completely different meaning from how they were
originally intended, or else their range of meaning has changed. In
the study of Buddha-Dhamma it is vital to be able to recognize and
distinguish these newer meanings in order to understand the true
definition of these terms. <a href="#fr-fn17-1">↩</a></p>
</aside>
<aside class="footnote-definition" id="fn-fn18"><sup class="footnote-definition-label">18</sup>
<p>Trans: In the original Thai text of <em>Buddhadhamma</em>, the venerable
author never uses the first person pronoun to refer to himself. This
is a means of distancing himself from the text. As he states in the
Author’s Notes, he wishes as much as possible to present an
objective account of the Buddha’s teachings, and in this regard, to
have the readers forget that he is there. As this is unusual in an
English context, I have occasionally inserted the first person
pronoun. <a href="#fr-fn18-1">↩</a></p>
</aside>
<aside class="footnote-definition" id="fn-fn19"><sup class="footnote-definition-label">19</sup>
<p>See the ’sequence of teaching’ (<em>desanānukkama</em>) at: MA. II. 219
(in reference to: M. I. 184-91). [Trans.: this final statement, of
the presentation being consistent with the Four Noble Truths, is
particularly noteworthy. For more on this subject, see how the four
factors of <em>Dukkha</em>, <em>Samudaya</em>, <em>Nirodha</em>, and <em>Magga</em> are included
in the Contents. See also chapter 19 on the Four Noble Truths.] <a href="#fr-fn19-1">↩</a></p>
</aside>
</div>
</main>
<nav class="nav-wrapper" aria-label="Page navigation">
<!-- Mobile navigation buttons -->
<a rel="prev" href="foreword-by-translator.html" class="mobile-nav-chapters previous" title="Previous chapter" aria-label="Previous chapter" aria-keyshortcuts="Left">
<i class="fa fa-angle-left"></i>
</a>
<a rel="next prefetch" href="middle-teaching.html" class="mobile-nav-chapters next" title="Next chapter" aria-label="Next chapter" aria-keyshortcuts="Right">
<i class="fa fa-angle-right"></i>
</a>
<div style="clear: both"></div>
</nav>
</div>
</div>
<nav class="nav-wide-wrapper" aria-label="Page navigation">
<a rel="prev" href="foreword-by-translator.html" class="nav-chapters previous" title="Previous chapter" aria-label="Previous chapter" aria-keyshortcuts="Left">
<i class="fa fa-angle-left"></i>
</a>
<a rel="next prefetch" href="middle-teaching.html" class="nav-chapters next" title="Next chapter" aria-label="Next chapter" aria-keyshortcuts="Right">
<i class="fa fa-angle-right"></i>
</a>
</nav>
</div>
<script>
window.playground_copyable = true;
</script>
<script src="elasticlunr.min.js"></script>
<script src="mark.min.js"></script>
<script src="searcher.js"></script>
<script src="clipboard.min.js"></script>
<script src="highlight.js"></script>
<script src="book.js"></script>
<!-- Custom JS scripts -->
</div>
</body>
</html>