Read the official documentation here: https://www.logicthrupython.org/api/.
This textbook provides code skeletons for functions that, when implemented, automate tasks in formal logic. I worked on them over the last year, and the result is essentially a Python package for classical first order and propositional logic. This repository is the first (and only, as of July 2024) set of solutions available. I have added some utilities without changing the existing ones, so everything in the documentation above is accurate.
Formulas are stored as objects of class Formula, which are composed of operators, subformulas, and terms (Term objects) in an expression tree or directed-acyclic graph structure. Terms are either constants, variables, or functions. Terms and formulas can be parsed from strings into objects of their respective type using the parse() methods of their respective classes. For example,
In [1]: formula = Formula.parse('Ax[(Man(x)->Mortal(x))]')
In [2]: print(f'{formula} is composed of the quantifier {formula.root}, bound variable {formula.variable}, and statement {formula.statement}. The statement is composed of subformulas {formula.statement.first} and {formula.statement.second}, with the operator {formula.statement.root}')
Out [2]: Ax[(Man(x)->Mortal(x))] is composed of the quantifier A, bound variable x, and statement (Man(x)->Mortal(x)). The statement is composed of subformulas Man(x) and Mortal(x), with the operator ->
Models are stored as Model objects, initialized with arguments universe, constant_interpretations, relation_interpretations, and function_interpretations. The evaluate_term and evaluate_formula methods of class Model return the constant interpretation or truth value, respectively, of a term or formula in the given model. Given a set of formulas, the method is_model_of() of class Model determines whether or not all of the formulas evaluate to true in the given model.
Although functions and equality are allowed by default, the file functions.py includes functions that eliminate the use of functions and/or equality from models and formulas by replacing them with equivalent relations and relation interpretations.
Axioms, axiom schemas, and assumptions are implemented as Schema objects, which include a formula and a set of templates indicating which terms and relations may be instantiated with other values. The following schema expresses the substitutability of equals, and can be instantiated as follows (I added a parsing method to the class Schema to allow copying and pasting from displayed objects):
In [3]: schema = Schema.parse('Schema: (c=d->(R(c)->R(d))) [templates: R, c, d]')
In [4]: schema.instantiate({'R': Formula.parse('_=z'), 'c': Term('x'), 'd': Term('y')})
Out [4]: (x=y->(x=z->y=z))
Proofs are stored as Proof objects, and are composed of a set of assumptions (Schema objects), an ordered sequence of lines each of which contains a formula and justification, and a conclusion which is stated both at the outset and as the last line of the proof. The following short proof shows how this data structure is represented:
In [5]: proof = prove_syllogism() # a proof stored in a function (for nefarious reasons)
In [6]: proof
Out [6]: Proof of Mortal(aristotle) from assumptions/axioms:
Schema: Ax[(Man(x)->Mortal(x))] [templates: none]
Schema: Man(aristotle) [templates: none]
...
Schema: ((Ax[(R(x)->Q())]&Ex[R(x)])->Q()) [templates: Q, R, x]
Lines:
0) Ax[(Man(x)->Mortal(x))] (Assumption Schema: Ax[(Man(x)->Mortal(x))] [templates: none] instantiated with {})
1) (Ax[(Man(x)->Mortal(x))]->(Man(aristotle)->Mortal(aristotle))) (Assumption Schema: (Ax[R(x)]->R(c)) [templates: R, c, x] instantiated with {'R': (Man(_)->Mortal(_)), 'c': aristotle})
2) (Man(aristotle)->Mortal(aristotle)) (MP from lines 0 and 1)
3) Man(aristotle) (Assumption Schema: Man(aristotle) [templates: none] instantiated with {})
4) Mortal(aristotle) (MP from lines 3 and 2)
QED
The package can check the validity of the proof:
In [7]: proof.is_valid()
Out [7]: True
And it can perform certain transformations on Proof objects, such as removing an assumption, or converting a proof from assumption P of a contradiction into a proof of ~P, without assumption P. For example:
In [8]: remove_assumption(proof, formula)
Out [8]: Proof of (Ax[(Man(x)->Mortal(x))]->Mortal(aristotle)) from assumptions/axioms:
Schema: Man(aristotle) [templates: none]
...
Schema: c=c [templates: c]
Lines:
0) (Ax[(Man(x)->Mortal(x))]->(Man(aristotle)->Mortal(aristotle))) (Assumption Schema: (Ax[R(x)]->R(c)) [templates: R, c, x] instantiated with {'R': (Man(_)->Mortal(_)), 'c': aristotle})
...
6) (Ax[(Man(x)->Mortal(x))]->Mortal(aristotle)) (MP from lines 3 and 5)
QED
Moreover, any formula can be converted to prenex normal form using the function to_prenex_normal_form(), which returns a a prenex equivalent as well as a proof of the equivalence. In the process, if any quantifiers share variable names, then they will all be replaced with unique ones, leading to unfortunate names like z15. For example:
In [9]: formula, proof = to_prenex_normal_form(Formula.parse('~~(~Ax[Ey[R(x,y)]]&~Ax[Ey[x=y]])'))
In [10]: formula
Out [10]: Ez1[Az2[Ez14[Az15[~~(~R(z1,z2)&~z14=z15)]]]]
In [11]: proof
Out [11]: Proof of ((~~(~Ax[Ey[R(x,y)]]&~Ax[Ey[x=y]])->Ez1[Az2[Ez14[Az15[~~(~R(z1,z2)&~z14=z15)]]]])&(Ez1[Az2[Ez14[Az15[~~(~R(z1,z2)&~z14=z15)]]]]->~~(~Ax[Ey[R(x,y)]]&~Ax[Ey[x=y]]))) from assumptions/axioms:
Schema: (Ax[R(x)]->R(c)) [templates: R, c, x]
...
Lines:
0) (((R(x,y)->R(x,y))&(R(x,y)->R(x,y)))->((Ey[R(x,y)]->Ez2[R(x,z2)])&(Ez2[R(x,z2)]->Ey[R(x,y)]))) (Assumption Schema: (((R(x)->Q(x))&(Q(x)->R(x)))->((Ex[R(x)]->Ey[Q(y)])&(Ey[Q(y)]->Ex[R(x)]))) [templates: Q, R, x, y] instantiated with {'R': R(x,_), 'Q': R(x,_), 'x': 'y', 'y': 'z2'})
...
114) ((~~(~Ax[Ey[R(x,y)]]&~Ax[Ey[x=y]])->Ez1[Az2[Ez14[Az15[~~(~R(z1,z2)&~z14=z15)]]]])&(Ez1[Az2[Ez14[Az15[~~(~R(z1,z2)&~z14=z15)]]]]->~~(~Ax[Ey[R(x,y)]]&~Ax[Ey[x=y]]))) (MP from lines 111 and 113)
QED
Duplicated and unnecessary lines can be removed from proofs using the clean() method that I added, without changing the validity of the proof.
It also includes an interface through objects of class Prover that assist the construction of FOL proofs by providing convenient methods for adding multiple lines in one line of code. These check for validity at each step, and allow for powerful techniques like chaining equalities and tautological implications of any size. For example, say prover is a Prover object containing a proof, for which line 7 contains the formula a=b, line 3 contains the formula b=f(b), and line 9 contains the formula f(b)=0. Then prover.add_chained_equality('a=0', [7,3,9]) adds a valid series of lines to the proof, ending with a line containing the formula 'a=0'.
FOL proofs are allowed to introduce any tautology on a new line, with 'tautology' defined as a formula whose propositional skeleton is a propositional logic tautology. This is justified by the implementation of the Tautology Theorem for propositional logic, which provides a method to prove any propositional tautology.
You can inline proofs using Prover objects by using the method add_proof(proof.conclusion, proof) of class Prover. This automatically adjusts line numbers so that the proof remains valid.
The section on propositional logic includes many similar classes, methods, and functions. The major difference is that any proof from a certain set of axioms can be generated automatically using functions described below. The automated proof strategies rely on Modus Ponens being the only inference rule that requires assumptions; others are written as assumptionless inference rules (such as [] ==> '~F'), meaning they can be introduced on any lines. The most notable features are described below.
Given any set of constant names, the function all_models() returns (a generator yielding) all possible combinations of assignments of True and False to them.
In [1]: list(all_models(('p', 'q')))
Out [1]: [{'q': False, 'p': False}, {'q': False, 'p': True}, {'q': True, 'p': False}, {'q': True, 'p': True}]
By evaluating a given formula over all models, functions implemented in the file semantics.py can perform tasks like determining if a given formula is a contradiction, tautology, or satisfiable; or determine if an inference rule is sound. The function print_truth_table() prints a truth table for any formula.
In [2]: formula = Formula.parse('~(q&p)')
In [3]: print_truth_table(formula)
Out[3]:
| p | q | ~(q&p) |
|---|---|---|
| F | F | T |
| F | T | T |
| T | F | T |
| T | T | F |
It can also go the other direction, by synthesizing a formula in CNF or DNF to capture a particular model or set of models, using the functions synthesize() or synthesize_cnf().
Given a formula and a model, if the formula evaluates to True in the model, prove_in_model_full(formula, model) returns a valid proof of the formula. If the formula evalutes to False in the model, it returns a valid proof of its negation.
In [4]: formula = Formula.parse('(p->q)')
In [5]: model = {'p': True, 'q': False}
In [6]: prove_in_model_full(formula, model)
Out [6]: Proof of ['p', '~q'] ==> '~(p->q)' via inference rules:
[] ==> '~F'
...
[] ==> '((~q->~p)->(p->q))'
Lines:
0) p
1) ~q
2) (p->(~q->~(p->q))) (Inference Rule [] ==> '(p->(~q->~(p->q)))')
3) (~q->~(p->q)) (Inference Rule ['p', '(p->q)'] ==> 'q' on lines 0,2)
4) ~(p->q) (Inference Rule ['p', '(p->q)'] ==> 'q' on lines 1,3)
QED
Similarly, given any tautology tautology, the function prove_tautology_full(tautology) returns a valid proof of the tautology, generated by first proving the formula in all models, then combining those proofs and removing the assumptions unique to their models.
The function proof_or_counterexample_full(formula), if formula is a tautology, returns a valid proof; otherwise it returns a model in which the formula evaluates to False.
On the other hand, if a formula is satisfiable, model_or_inconsistency_full(formula) returns a model in which it evaluates to True; otherwise it returns a proof of a contradiction derived by assuming formula.
In order to evaluate if an FOL formula is a tautology, functions for predicate logic convert the formula to a propositional skeleton and take advantage of methods from propositional logic.