chapter07_working-with-keras.ipynb

{
 "cells": [
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "text"
   },
   "source": [
    "This is a companion notebook for the book [Deep Learning with Python, Second Edition](https://www.manning.com/books/deep-learning-with-python-second-edition?a_aid=keras&a_bid=76564dff). For readability, it only contains runnable code blocks and section titles, and omits everything else in the book: text paragraphs, figures, and pseudocode.\n\n**If you want to be able to follow what's going on, I recommend reading the notebook side by side with your copy of the book.**\n\nThis notebook was generated for TensorFlow 2.6."
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "text"
   },
   "source": [
    "# Working with Keras: a deep dive"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "text"
   },
   "source": [
    "## A spectrum of workflows"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "text"
   },
   "source": [
    "## Different ways to build Keras models"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "text"
   },
   "source": [
    "### The Sequential model"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "text"
   },
   "source": [
    "**The Sequential class**"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 0,
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "code"
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "from tensorflow import keras\n",
    "from tensorflow.keras import layers\n",
    "\n",
    "model = keras.Sequential([\n",
    "    layers.Dense(64, activation=\"relu\"),\n",
    "    layers.Dense(10, activation=\"softmax\")\n",
    "])"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "text"
   },
   "source": [
    "**Incrementally building a Sequential model**"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 0,
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "code"
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "model = keras.Sequential()\n",
    "model.add(layers.Dense(64, activation=\"relu\"))\n",
    "model.add(layers.Dense(10, activation=\"softmax\"))"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "text"
   },
   "source": [
    "**Calling a model for the first time to build it**"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 0,
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "code"
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "model.build(input_shape=(None, 3))\n",
    "model.weights"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "text"
   },
   "source": [
    "**The summary method**"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 0,
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "code"
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "model.summary()"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "text"
   },
   "source": [
    "**Naming models and layers with the `name` argument**"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 0,
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "code"
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "model = keras.Sequential(name=\"my_example_model\")\n",
    "model.add(layers.Dense(64, activation=\"relu\", name=\"my_first_layer\"))\n",
    "model.add(layers.Dense(10, activation=\"softmax\", name=\"my_last_layer\"))\n",
    "model.build((None, 3))\n",
    "model.summary()"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "text"
   },
   "source": [
    "**Specifying the input shape of your model in advance**"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 0,
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "code"
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "model = keras.Sequential()\n",
    "model.add(keras.Input(shape=(3,)))\n",
    "model.add(layers.Dense(64, activation=\"relu\"))"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 0,
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "code"
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "model.summary()"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 0,
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "code"
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "model.add(layers.Dense(10, activation=\"softmax\"))\n",
    "model.summary()"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "text"
   },
   "source": [
    "### The Functional API"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "text"
   },
   "source": [
    "#### A simple example"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "text"
   },
   "source": [
    "**A simple Functional model with two Dense layers**"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 0,
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "code"
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "inputs = keras.Input(shape=(3,), name=\"my_input\")\n",
    "features = layers.Dense(64, activation=\"relu\")(inputs)\n",
    "outputs = layers.Dense(10, activation=\"softmax\")(features)\n",
    "model = keras.Model(inputs=inputs, outputs=outputs)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 0,
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "code"
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "inputs = keras.Input(shape=(3,), name=\"my_input\")"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 0,
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "code"
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "inputs.shape"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 0,
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "code"
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "inputs.dtype"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 0,
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "code"
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "features = layers.Dense(64, activation=\"relu\")(inputs)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 0,
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "code"
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "features.shape"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 0,
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "code"
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "outputs = layers.Dense(10, activation=\"softmax\")(features)\n",
    "model = keras.Model(inputs=inputs, outputs=outputs)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 0,
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "code"
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "model.summary()"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "text"
   },
   "source": [
    "#### Multi-input, multi-output models"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "text"
   },
   "source": [
    "**A multi-input, multi-output Functional model**"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 0,
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "code"
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "vocabulary_size = 10000\n",
    "num_tags = 100\n",
    "num_departments = 4\n",
    "\n",
    "title = keras.Input(shape=(vocabulary_size,), name=\"title\")\n",
    "text_body = keras.Input(shape=(vocabulary_size,), name=\"text_body\")\n",
    "tags = keras.Input(shape=(num_tags,), name=\"tags\")\n",
    "\n",
    "features = layers.Concatenate()([title, text_body, tags])\n",
    "features = layers.Dense(64, activation=\"relu\")(features)\n",
    "\n",
    "priority = layers.Dense(1, activation=\"sigmoid\", name=\"priority\")(features)\n",
    "department = layers.Dense(\n",
    "    num_departments, activation=\"softmax\", name=\"department\")(features)\n",
    "\n",
    "model = keras.Model(inputs=[title, text_body, tags], outputs=[priority, department])"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "text"
   },
   "source": [
    "#### Training a multi-input, multi-output model"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "text"
   },
   "source": [
    "**Training a model by providing lists of input & target arrays**"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 0,
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "code"
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "import numpy as np\n",
    "\n",
    "num_samples = 1280\n",
    "\n",
    "title_data = np.random.randint(0, 2, size=(num_samples, vocabulary_size))\n",
    "text_body_data = np.random.randint(0, 2, size=(num_samples, vocabulary_size))\n",
    "tags_data = np.random.randint(0, 2, size=(num_samples, num_tags))\n",
    "\n",
    "priority_data = np.random.random(size=(num_samples, 1))\n",
    "department_data = np.random.randint(0, 2, size=(num_samples, num_departments))\n",
    "\n",
    "model.compile(optimizer=\"adam\",\n",
    "              loss=[\"mean_squared_error\", \"categorical_crossentropy\"],\n",
    "              metrics=[[\"mean_absolute_error\"], [\"accuracy\"]])\n",
    "model.fit([title_data, text_body_data, tags_data],\n",
    "          [priority_data, department_data],\n",
    "          epochs=1)\n",
    "model.evaluate([title_data, text_body_data, tags_data],\n",
    "               [priority_data, department_data])\n",
    "priority_preds, department_preds = model.predict([title_data, text_body_data, tags_data])"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "text"
   },
   "source": [
    "**Training a model by providing dicts of input & target arrays**"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 0,
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "code"
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "model.compile(optimizer=\"adam\",\n",
    "              loss={\"priority\": \"mean_squared_error\", \"department\": \"categorical_crossentropy\"},\n",
    "              metrics={\"priority\": [\"mean_absolute_error\"], \"department\": [\"accuracy\"]})\n",
    "model.fit({\"title\": title_data, \"text_body\": text_body_data, \"tags\": tags_data},\n",
    "          {\"priority\": priority_data, \"department\": department_data},\n",
    "          epochs=1)\n",
    "model.evaluate({\"title\": title_data, \"text_body\": text_body_data, \"tags\": tags_data},\n",
    "               {\"priority\": priority_data, \"department\": department_data})\n",
    "priority_preds, department_preds = model.predict(\n",
    "    {\"title\": title_data, \"text_body\": text_body_data, \"tags\": tags_data})"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "text"
   },
   "source": [
    "#### The power of the Functional API: access to layer connectivity"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "text"
   },
   "source": [
    "##### Plotting layer connectivity"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 0,
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "code"
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "keras.utils.plot_model(model, \"ticket_classifier.png\")"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 0,
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "code"
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "keras.utils.plot_model(model, \"ticket_classifier_with_shape_info.png\", show_shapes=True)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "text"
   },
   "source": [
    "##### Feature extraction with a Functional model"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "text"
   },
   "source": [
    "**Retrieving the inputs or outputs of a layer in a Functional model**"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 0,
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "code"
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "model.layers"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 0,
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "code"
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "model.layers[3].input"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 0,
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "code"
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "model.layers[3].output"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "text"
   },
   "source": [
    "**Creating a new model by reusing intermediate layer outputs**"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 0,
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "code"
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "features = model.layers[4].output\n",
    "difficulty = layers.Dense(3, activation=\"softmax\", name=\"difficulty\")(features)\n",
    "\n",
    "new_model = keras.Model(\n",
    "    inputs=[title, text_body, tags],\n",
    "    outputs=[priority, department, difficulty])"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 0,
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "code"
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "keras.utils.plot_model(new_model, \"updated_ticket_classifier.png\", show_shapes=True)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "text"
   },
   "source": [
    "### Subclassing the `Model` class"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "text"
   },
   "source": [
    "#### Rewriting our previous example as a subclassed model"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "text"
   },
   "source": [
    "**A simple subclassed model**"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 0,
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "code"
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "class CustomerTicketModel(keras.Model):\n",
    "\n",
    "    def __init__(self, num_departments):\n",
    "        super().__init__()\n",
    "        self.concat_layer = layers.Concatenate()\n",
    "        self.mixing_layer = layers.Dense(64, activation=\"relu\")\n",
    "        self.priority_scorer = layers.Dense(1, activation=\"sigmoid\")\n",
    "        self.department_classifier = layers.Dense(\n",
    "            num_departments, activation=\"softmax\")\n",
    "\n",
    "    def call(self, inputs):\n",
    "        title = inputs[\"title\"]\n",
    "        text_body = inputs[\"text_body\"]\n",
    "        tags = inputs[\"tags\"]\n",
    "\n",
    "        features = self.concat_layer([title, text_body, tags])\n",
    "        features = self.mixing_layer(features)\n",
    "        priority = self.priority_scorer(features)\n",
    "        department = self.department_classifier(features)\n",
    "        return priority, department"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 0,
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "code"
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "model = CustomerTicketModel(num_departments=4)\n",
    "\n",
    "priority, department = model(\n",
    "    {\"title\": title_data, \"text_body\": text_body_data, \"tags\": tags_data})"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 0,
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "code"
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "model.compile(optimizer=\"adam\",\n",
    "              loss=[\"mean_squared_error\", \"categorical_crossentropy\"],\n",
    "              metrics=[[\"mean_absolute_error\"], [\"accuracy\"]])\n",
    "model.fit({\"title\": title_data, \"text_body\": text_body_data, \"tags\": tags_data},\n",
    "          [priority_data, department_data],\n",
    "          epochs=1)\n",
    "model.evaluate({\"title\": title_data, \"text_body\": text_body_data, \"tags\": tags_data},\n",
    "               [priority_data, department_data])\n",
    "priority_preds, department_preds = model.predict(\n",
    "    {\"title\": title_data, \"text_body\": text_body_data, \"tags\": tags_data})"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "text"
   },
   "source": [
    "#### Beware: what subclassed models don't support"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "text"
   },
   "source": [
    "### Mixing and matching different components"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "text"
   },
   "source": [
    "**Creating a Functional model that includes a subclassed model**"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 0,
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "code"
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "class Classifier(keras.Model):\n",
    "\n",
    "    def __init__(self, num_classes=2):\n",
    "        super().__init__()\n",
    "        if num_classes == 2:\n",
    "            num_units = 1\n",
    "            activation = \"sigmoid\"\n",
    "        else:\n",
    "            num_units = num_classes\n",
    "            activation = \"softmax\"\n",
    "        self.dense = layers.Dense(num_units, activation=activation)\n",
    "\n",
    "    def call(self, inputs):\n",
    "        return self.dense(inputs)\n",
    "\n",
    "inputs = keras.Input(shape=(3,))\n",
    "features = layers.Dense(64, activation=\"relu\")(inputs)\n",
    "outputs = Classifier(num_classes=10)(features)\n",
    "model = keras.Model(inputs=inputs, outputs=outputs)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "text"
   },
   "source": [
    "**Creating a subclassed model that includes a Functional model**"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 0,
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "code"
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "inputs = keras.Input(shape=(64,))\n",
    "outputs = layers.Dense(1, activation=\"sigmoid\")(inputs)\n",
    "binary_classifier = keras.Model(inputs=inputs, outputs=outputs)\n",
    "\n",
    "class MyModel(keras.Model):\n",
    "\n",
    "    def __init__(self, num_classes=2):\n",
    "        super().__init__()\n",
    "        self.dense = layers.Dense(64, activation=\"relu\")\n",
    "        self.classifier = binary_classifier\n",
    "\n",
    "    def call(self, inputs):\n",
    "        features = self.dense(inputs)\n",
    "        return self.classifier(features)\n",
    "\n",
    "model = MyModel()"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "text"
   },
   "source": [
    "### Remember: use the right tool for the job"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "text"
   },
   "source": [
    "## Using built-in training and evaluation loops"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "text"
   },
   "source": [
    "**The standard workflow: `compile()` / `fit()` / `evaluate()` / `predict()`**"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 0,
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "code"
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "from tensorflow.keras.datasets import mnist\n",
    "\n",
    "def get_mnist_model():\n",
    "    inputs = keras.Input(shape=(28 * 28,))\n",
    "    features = layers.Dense(512, activation=\"relu\")(inputs)\n",
    "    features = layers.Dropout(0.5)(features)\n",
    "    outputs = layers.Dense(10, activation=\"softmax\")(features)\n",
    "    model = keras.Model(inputs, outputs)\n",
    "    return model\n",
    "\n",
    "(images, labels), (test_images, test_labels) = mnist.load_data()\n",
    "images = images.reshape((60000, 28 * 28)).astype(\"float32\") / 255\n",
    "test_images = test_images.reshape((10000, 28 * 28)).astype(\"float32\") / 255\n",
    "train_images, val_images = images[10000:], images[:10000]\n",
    "train_labels, val_labels = labels[10000:], labels[:10000]\n",
    "\n",
    "model = get_mnist_model()\n",
    "model.compile(optimizer=\"rmsprop\",\n",
    "              loss=\"sparse_categorical_crossentropy\",\n",
    "              metrics=[\"accuracy\"])\n",
    "model.fit(train_images, train_labels,\n",
    "          epochs=3,\n",
    "          validation_data=(val_images, val_labels))\n",
    "test_metrics = model.evaluate(test_images, test_labels)\n",
    "predictions = model.predict(test_images)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "text"
   },
   "source": [
    "### Writing your own metrics"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "text"
   },
   "source": [
    "**Implementing a custom metric by subclassing the `Metric` class**"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 0,
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "code"
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "import tensorflow as tf\n",
    "\n",
    "class RootMeanSquaredError(keras.metrics.Metric):\n",
    "\n",
    "    def __init__(self, name=\"rmse\", **kwargs):\n",
    "        super().__init__(name=name, **kwargs)\n",
    "        self.mse_sum = self.add_weight(name=\"mse_sum\", initializer=\"zeros\")\n",
    "        self.total_samples = self.add_weight(\n",
    "            name=\"total_samples\", initializer=\"zeros\", dtype=\"int32\")\n",
    "\n",
    "    def update_state(self, y_true, y_pred, sample_weight=None):\n",
    "        y_true = tf.one_hot(y_true, depth=tf.shape(y_pred)[1])\n",
    "        mse = tf.reduce_sum(tf.square(y_true - y_pred))\n",
    "        self.mse_sum.assign_add(mse)\n",
    "        num_samples = tf.shape(y_pred)[0]\n",
    "        self.total_samples.assign_add(num_samples)\n",
    "\n",
    "    def result(self):\n",
    "        return tf.sqrt(self.mse_sum / tf.cast(self.total_samples, tf.float32))\n",
    "\n",
    "    def reset_state(self):\n",
    "        self.mse_sum.assign(0.)\n",
    "        self.total_samples.assign(0)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 0,
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "code"
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "model = get_mnist_model()\n",
    "model.compile(optimizer=\"rmsprop\",\n",
    "              loss=\"sparse_categorical_crossentropy\",\n",
    "              metrics=[\"accuracy\", RootMeanSquaredError()])\n",
    "model.fit(train_images, train_labels,\n",
    "          epochs=3,\n",
    "          validation_data=(val_images, val_labels))\n",
    "test_metrics = model.evaluate(test_images, test_labels)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "text"
   },
   "source": [
    "### Using Callbacks"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "text"
   },
   "source": [
    "#### The `EarlyStopping` and `ModelCheckpoint` callbacks"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "text"
   },
   "source": [
    "**Using the `callbacks` argument in the `fit()` method**"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 0,
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "code"
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "callbacks_list = [\n",
    "    keras.callbacks.EarlyStopping(\n",
    "        monitor=\"accuracy\",\n",
    "        patience=1,\n",
    "    ),\n",
    "    keras.callbacks.ModelCheckpoint(\n",
    "        filepath=\"checkpoint_path.keras\",\n",
    "        monitor=\"val_loss\",\n",
    "        save_best_only=True,\n",
    "    )\n",
    "]\n",
    "model = get_mnist_model()\n",
    "model.compile(optimizer=\"rmsprop\",\n",
    "              loss=\"sparse_categorical_crossentropy\",\n",
    "              metrics=[\"accuracy\"])\n",
    "model.fit(train_images, train_labels,\n",
    "          epochs=10,\n",
    "          callbacks=callbacks_list,\n",
    "          validation_data=(val_images, val_labels))"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 0,
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "code"
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "model = keras.models.load_model(\"checkpoint_path.keras\")"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "text"
   },
   "source": [
    "### Writing your own callbacks"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "text"
   },
   "source": [
    "**Creating a custom callback by subclassing the `Callback` class**"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 0,
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "code"
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "from matplotlib import pyplot as plt\n",
    "\n",
    "class LossHistory(keras.callbacks.Callback):\n",
    "    def on_train_begin(self, logs):\n",
    "        self.per_batch_losses = []\n",
    "\n",
    "    def on_batch_end(self, batch, logs):\n",
    "        self.per_batch_losses.append(logs.get(\"loss\"))\n",
    "\n",
    "    def on_epoch_end(self, epoch, logs):\n",
    "        plt.clf()\n",
    "        plt.plot(range(len(self.per_batch_losses)), self.per_batch_losses,\n",
    "                 label=\"Training loss for each batch\")\n",
    "        plt.xlabel(f\"Batch (epoch {epoch})\")\n",
    "        plt.ylabel(\"Loss\")\n",
    "        plt.legend()\n",
    "        plt.savefig(f\"plot_at_epoch_{epoch}\")\n",
    "        self.per_batch_losses = []"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 0,
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "code"
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "model = get_mnist_model()\n",
    "model.compile(optimizer=\"rmsprop\",\n",
    "              loss=\"sparse_categorical_crossentropy\",\n",
    "              metrics=[\"accuracy\"])\n",
    "model.fit(train_images, train_labels,\n",
    "          epochs=10,\n",
    "          callbacks=[LossHistory()],\n",
    "          validation_data=(val_images, val_labels))"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "text"
   },
   "source": [
    "### Monitoring and visualization with TensorBoard"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 0,
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "code"
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "model = get_mnist_model()\n",
    "model.compile(optimizer=\"rmsprop\",\n",
    "              loss=\"sparse_categorical_crossentropy\",\n",
    "              metrics=[\"accuracy\"])\n",
    "\n",
    "tensorboard = keras.callbacks.TensorBoard(\n",
    "    log_dir=\"/full_path_to_your_log_dir\",\n",
    ")\n",
    "model.fit(train_images, train_labels,\n",
    "          epochs=10,\n",
    "          validation_data=(val_images, val_labels),\n",
    "          callbacks=[tensorboard])"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 0,
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "code"
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "%load_ext tensorboard\n",
    "%tensorboard --logdir /full_path_to_your_log_dir"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "text"
   },
   "source": [
    "## Writing your own training and evaluation loops"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "text"
   },
   "source": [
    "### Training versus inference"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "text"
   },
   "source": [
    "### Low-level usage of metrics"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 0,
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "code"
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "metric = keras.metrics.SparseCategoricalAccuracy()\n",
    "targets = [0, 1, 2]\n",
    "predictions = [[1, 0, 0], [0, 1, 0], [0, 0, 1]]\n",
    "metric.update_state(targets, predictions)\n",
    "current_result = metric.result()\n",
    "print(f\"result: {current_result:.2f}\")"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 0,
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "code"
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "values = [0, 1, 2, 3, 4]\n",
    "mean_tracker = keras.metrics.Mean()\n",
    "for value in values:\n",
    "    mean_tracker.update_state(value)\n",
    "print(f\"Mean of values: {mean_tracker.result():.2f}\")"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "text"
   },
   "source": [
    "### A complete training and evaluation loop"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "text"
   },
   "source": [
    "**Writing a step-by-step training loop: the training step function**"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 0,
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "code"
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "model = get_mnist_model()\n",
    "\n",
    "loss_fn = keras.losses.SparseCategoricalCrossentropy()\n",
    "optimizer = keras.optimizers.RMSprop()\n",
    "metrics = [keras.metrics.SparseCategoricalAccuracy()]\n",
    "loss_tracking_metric = keras.metrics.Mean()\n",
    "\n",
    "def train_step(inputs, targets):\n",
    "    with tf.GradientTape() as tape:\n",
    "        predictions = model(inputs, training=True)\n",
    "        loss = loss_fn(targets, predictions)\n",
    "    gradients = tape.gradient(loss, model.trainable_weights)\n",
    "    optimizer.apply_gradients(zip(gradients, model.trainable_weights))\n",
    "\n",
    "    logs = {}\n",
    "    for metric in metrics:\n",
    "        metric.update_state(targets, predictions)\n",
    "        logs[metric.name] = metric.result()\n",
    "\n",
    "    loss_tracking_metric.update_state(loss)\n",
    "    logs[\"loss\"] = loss_tracking_metric.result()\n",
    "    return logs"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "text"
   },
   "source": [
    "**Writing a step-by-step training loop: resetting the metrics**"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 0,
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "code"
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "def reset_metrics():\n",
    "    for metric in metrics:\n",
    "        metric.reset_state()\n",
    "    loss_tracking_metric.reset_state()"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "text"
   },
   "source": [
    "**Writing a step-by-step training loop: the loop itself**"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 0,
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "code"
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "training_dataset = tf.data.Dataset.from_tensor_slices((train_images, train_labels))\n",
    "training_dataset = training_dataset.batch(32)\n",
    "epochs = 3\n",
    "for epoch in range(epochs):\n",
    "    reset_metrics()\n",
    "    for inputs_batch, targets_batch in training_dataset:\n",
    "        logs = train_step(inputs_batch, targets_batch)\n",
    "    print(f\"Results at the end of epoch {epoch}\")\n",
    "    for key, value in logs.items():\n",
    "        print(f\"...{key}: {value:.4f}\")"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "text"
   },
   "source": [
    "**Writing a step-by-step evaluation loop**"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 0,
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "code"
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "def test_step(inputs, targets):\n",
    "    predictions = model(inputs, training=False)\n",
    "    loss = loss_fn(targets, predictions)\n",
    "\n",
    "    logs = {}\n",
    "    for metric in metrics:\n",
    "        metric.update_state(targets, predictions)\n",
    "        logs[\"val_\" + metric.name] = metric.result()\n",
    "\n",
    "    loss_tracking_metric.update_state(loss)\n",
    "    logs[\"val_loss\"] = loss_tracking_metric.result()\n",
    "    return logs\n",
    "\n",
    "val_dataset = tf.data.Dataset.from_tensor_slices((val_images, val_labels))\n",
    "val_dataset = val_dataset.batch(32)\n",
    "reset_metrics()\n",
    "for inputs_batch, targets_batch in val_dataset:\n",
    "    logs = test_step(inputs_batch, targets_batch)\n",
    "print(\"Evaluation results:\")\n",
    "for key, value in logs.items():\n",
    "    print(f\"...{key}: {value:.4f}\")"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "text"
   },
   "source": [
    "### Make it fast with `tf.function`"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "text"
   },
   "source": [
    "**Adding a `tf.function` decorator to our evaluation step function**"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 0,
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "code"
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "@tf.function\n",
    "def test_step(inputs, targets):\n",
    "    predictions = model(inputs, training=False)\n",
    "    loss = loss_fn(targets, predictions)\n",
    "\n",
    "    logs = {}\n",
    "    for metric in metrics:\n",
    "        metric.update_state(targets, predictions)\n",
    "        logs[\"val_\" + metric.name] = metric.result()\n",
    "\n",
    "    loss_tracking_metric.update_state(loss)\n",
    "    logs[\"val_loss\"] = loss_tracking_metric.result()\n",
    "    return logs\n",
    "\n",
    "val_dataset = tf.data.Dataset.from_tensor_slices((val_images, val_labels))\n",
    "val_dataset = val_dataset.batch(32)\n",
    "reset_metrics()\n",
    "for inputs_batch, targets_batch in val_dataset:\n",
    "    logs = test_step(inputs_batch, targets_batch)\n",
    "print(\"Evaluation results:\")\n",
    "for key, value in logs.items():\n",
    "    print(f\"...{key}: {value:.4f}\")"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "text"
   },
   "source": [
    "### Leveraging `fit()` with a custom training loop"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "text"
   },
   "source": [
    "**Implementing a custom training step to use with `fit()`**"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 0,
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "code"
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "loss_fn = keras.losses.SparseCategoricalCrossentropy()\n",
    "loss_tracker = keras.metrics.Mean(name=\"loss\")\n",
    "\n",
    "class CustomModel(keras.Model):\n",
    "    def train_step(self, data):\n",
    "        inputs, targets = data\n",
    "        with tf.GradientTape() as tape:\n",
    "            predictions = self(inputs, training=True)\n",
    "            loss = loss_fn(targets, predictions)\n",
    "        gradients = tape.gradient(loss, model.trainable_weights)\n",
    "        optimizer.apply_gradients(zip(gradients, model.trainable_weights))\n",
    "\n",
    "        loss_tracker.update_state(loss)\n",
    "        return {\"loss\": loss_tracker.result()}\n",
    "\n",
    "    @property\n",
    "    def metrics(self):\n",
    "        return [loss_tracker]"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 0,
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "code"
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "inputs = keras.Input(shape=(28 * 28,))\n",
    "features = layers.Dense(512, activation=\"relu\")(inputs)\n",
    "features = layers.Dropout(0.5)(features)\n",
    "outputs = layers.Dense(10, activation=\"softmax\")(features)\n",
    "model = CustomModel(inputs, outputs)\n",
    "\n",
    "model.compile(optimizer=keras.optimizers.RMSprop())\n",
    "model.fit(train_images, train_labels, epochs=3)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 0,
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "code"
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "class CustomModel(keras.Model):\n",
    "    def train_step(self, data):\n",
    "        inputs, targets = data\n",
    "        with tf.GradientTape() as tape:\n",
    "            predictions = self(inputs, training=True)\n",
    "            loss = self.compiled_loss(targets, predictions)\n",
    "        gradients = tape.gradient(loss, model.trainable_weights)\n",
    "        optimizer.apply_gradients(zip(gradients, model.trainable_weights))\n",
    "        self.compiled_metrics.update_state(targets, predictions)\n",
    "        return {m.name: m.result() for m in self.metrics}"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "code",
   "execution_count": 0,
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "code"
   },
   "outputs": [],
   "source": [
    "inputs = keras.Input(shape=(28 * 28,))\n",
    "features = layers.Dense(512, activation=\"relu\")(inputs)\n",
    "features = layers.Dropout(0.5)(features)\n",
    "outputs = layers.Dense(10, activation=\"softmax\")(features)\n",
    "model = CustomModel(inputs, outputs)\n",
    "\n",
    "model.compile(optimizer=keras.optimizers.RMSprop(),\n",
    "              loss=keras.losses.SparseCategoricalCrossentropy(),\n",
    "              metrics=[keras.metrics.SparseCategoricalAccuracy()])\n",
    "model.fit(train_images, train_labels, epochs=3)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "cell_type": "markdown",
   "metadata": {
    "colab_type": "text"
   },
   "source": [
    "## Chapter summary"
   ]
  }
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