parser.rs

// Copyright 2012-2014 The Rust Project Developers. See the COPYRIGHT
// file at the top-level directory of this distribution and at
// http://rust-lang.org/COPYRIGHT.
//
// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 <LICENSE-APACHE or
// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0> or the MIT license
// <LICENSE-MIT or http://opensource.org/licenses/MIT>, at your
// option. This file may not be copied, modified, or distributed
// except according to those terms.

use abi::{self, Abi};
use ast::{AttrStyle, BareFnTy};
use ast::{RegionTyParamBound, TraitTyParamBound, TraitBoundModifier};
use ast::Unsafety;
use ast::{Mod, Arg, Arm, Attribute, BindingMode, TraitItemKind};
use ast::Block;
use ast::{BlockCheckMode, CaptureBy};
use ast::{Constness, Crate};
use ast::Defaultness;
use ast::EnumDef;
use ast::{Expr, ExprKind, RangeLimits};
use ast::{Field, FnDecl};
use ast::{ForeignItem, ForeignItemKind, FunctionRetTy};
use ast::{Ident, ImplItem, Item, ItemKind};
use ast::{Lifetime, LifetimeDef, Lit, LitKind, UintTy};
use ast::Local;
use ast::MacStmtStyle;
use ast::Mac_;
use ast::{MutTy, Mutability};
use ast::{Pat, PatKind, PathSegment};
use ast::{PolyTraitRef, QSelf};
use ast::{Stmt, StmtKind};
use ast::{VariantData, StructField};
use ast::StrStyle;
use ast::SelfKind;
use ast::{TraitItem, TraitRef};
use ast::{Ty, TyKind, TypeBinding, TyParam, TyParamBounds};
use ast::{ViewPath, ViewPathGlob, ViewPathList, ViewPathSimple};
use ast::{Visibility, WhereClause};
use ast::{BinOpKind, UnOp};
use ast::RangeEnd;
use {ast, attr};
use codemap::{self, CodeMap, Spanned, respan};
use syntax_pos::{self, Span, BytePos};
use errors::{self, DiagnosticBuilder};
use parse::{self, classify, token};
use parse::common::SeqSep;
use parse::lexer::TokenAndSpan;
use parse::lexer::comments::{doc_comment_style, strip_doc_comment_decoration};
use parse::obsolete::ObsoleteSyntax;
use parse::{new_sub_parser_from_file, ParseSess, Directory, DirectoryOwnership};
use util::parser::{AssocOp, Fixity};
use print::pprust;
use ptr::P;
use parse::PResult;
use tokenstream::{self, Delimited, ThinTokenStream, TokenTree, TokenStream};
use symbol::{Symbol, keywords};
use util::ThinVec;

use std::cmp;
use std::collections::HashSet;
use std::mem;
use std::path::{self, Path, PathBuf};
use std::slice;

bitflags! {
    flags Restrictions: u8 {
        const RESTRICTION_STMT_EXPR         = 1 << 0,
        const RESTRICTION_NO_STRUCT_LITERAL = 1 << 1,
    }
}

type ItemInfo = (Ident, ItemKind, Option<Vec<Attribute> >);

/// How to parse a path. There are three different kinds of paths, all of which
/// are parsed somewhat differently.
#[derive(Copy, Clone, PartialEq)]
pub enum PathStyle {
    /// A path with no type parameters, e.g. `foo::bar::Baz`, used in imports or visibilities.
    Mod,
    /// A path with a lifetime and type parameters, with no double colons
    /// before the type parameters; e.g. `foo::bar<'a>::Baz<T>`, used in types.
    /// Paths using this style can be passed into macros expecting `path` nonterminals.
    Type,
    /// A path with a lifetime and type parameters with double colons before
    /// the type parameters; e.g. `foo::bar::<'a>::Baz::<T>`, used in expressions or patterns.
    Expr,
}

#[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug, PartialEq)]
pub enum SemiColonMode {
    Break,
    Ignore,
}

#[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug, PartialEq)]
pub enum BlockMode {
    Break,
    Ignore,
}

/// Possibly accept an `token::Interpolated` expression (a pre-parsed expression
/// dropped into the token stream, which happens while parsing the result of
/// macro expansion). Placement of these is not as complex as I feared it would
/// be. The important thing is to make sure that lookahead doesn't balk at
/// `token::Interpolated` tokens.
macro_rules! maybe_whole_expr {
    ($p:expr) => {
        if let token::Interpolated(nt) = $p.token.clone() {
            match *nt {
                token::NtExpr(ref e) => {
                    $p.bump();
                    return Ok((*e).clone());
                }
                token::NtPath(ref path) => {
                    $p.bump();
                    let span = $p.span;
                    let kind = ExprKind::Path(None, (*path).clone());
                    return Ok($p.mk_expr(span, kind, ThinVec::new()));
                }
                token::NtBlock(ref block) => {
                    $p.bump();
                    let span = $p.span;
                    let kind = ExprKind::Block((*block).clone());
                    return Ok($p.mk_expr(span, kind, ThinVec::new()));
                }
                _ => {},
            };
        }
    }
}

/// As maybe_whole_expr, but for things other than expressions
macro_rules! maybe_whole {
    ($p:expr, $constructor:ident, |$x:ident| $e:expr) => {
        if let token::Interpolated(nt) = $p.token.clone() {
            if let token::$constructor($x) = (*nt).clone() {
                $p.bump();
                return Ok($e);
            }
        }
    };
}

fn maybe_append(mut lhs: Vec<Attribute>, rhs: Option<Vec<Attribute>>)
                -> Vec<Attribute> {
    if let Some(ref attrs) = rhs {
        lhs.extend(attrs.iter().cloned())
    }
    lhs
}

#[derive(PartialEq)]
enum PrevTokenKind {
    DocComment,
    Comma,
    Plus,
    Interpolated,
    Eof,
    Other,
}

/* ident is handled by common.rs */

pub struct Parser<'a> {
    pub sess: &'a ParseSess,
    /// the current token:
    pub token: token::Token,
    /// the span of the current token:
    pub span: Span,
    /// the span of the previous token:
    pub meta_var_span: Option<Span>,
    pub prev_span: Span,
    /// the previous token kind
    prev_token_kind: PrevTokenKind,
    pub restrictions: Restrictions,
    /// The set of seen errors about obsolete syntax. Used to suppress
    /// extra detail when the same error is seen twice
    pub obsolete_set: HashSet<ObsoleteSyntax>,
    /// Used to determine the path to externally loaded source files
    pub directory: Directory,
    /// Name of the root module this parser originated from. If `None`, then the
    /// name is not known. This does not change while the parser is descending
    /// into modules, and sub-parsers have new values for this name.
    pub root_module_name: Option<String>,
    pub expected_tokens: Vec<TokenType>,
    token_cursor: TokenCursor,
    pub desugar_doc_comments: bool,
    /// Whether we should configure out of line modules as we parse.
    pub cfg_mods: bool,
}

struct TokenCursor {
    frame: TokenCursorFrame,
    stack: Vec<TokenCursorFrame>,
}

struct TokenCursorFrame {
    delim: token::DelimToken,
    span: Span,
    open_delim: bool,
    tree_cursor: tokenstream::Cursor,
    close_delim: bool,
}

impl TokenCursorFrame {
    fn new(sp: Span, delimited: &Delimited) -> Self {
        TokenCursorFrame {
            delim: delimited.delim,
            span: sp,
            open_delim: delimited.delim == token::NoDelim,
            tree_cursor: delimited.stream().into_trees(),
            close_delim: delimited.delim == token::NoDelim,
        }
    }
}

impl TokenCursor {
    fn next(&mut self) -> TokenAndSpan {
        loop {
            let tree = if !self.frame.open_delim {
                self.frame.open_delim = true;
                Delimited { delim: self.frame.delim, tts: TokenStream::empty().into() }
                    .open_tt(self.frame.span)
            } else if let Some(tree) = self.frame.tree_cursor.next() {
                tree
            } else if !self.frame.close_delim {
                self.frame.close_delim = true;
                Delimited { delim: self.frame.delim, tts: TokenStream::empty().into() }
                    .close_tt(self.frame.span)
            } else if let Some(frame) = self.stack.pop() {
                self.frame = frame;
                continue
            } else {
                return TokenAndSpan { tok: token::Eof, sp: syntax_pos::DUMMY_SP }
            };

            match tree {
                TokenTree::Token(sp, tok) => return TokenAndSpan { tok: tok, sp: sp },
                TokenTree::Delimited(sp, ref delimited) => {
                    let frame = TokenCursorFrame::new(sp, delimited);
                    self.stack.push(mem::replace(&mut self.frame, frame));
                }
            }
        }
    }

    fn next_desugared(&mut self) -> TokenAndSpan {
        let (sp, name) = match self.next() {
            TokenAndSpan { sp, tok: token::DocComment(name) } => (sp, name),
            tok @ _ => return tok,
        };

        let stripped = strip_doc_comment_decoration(&name.as_str());

        // Searches for the occurrences of `"#*` and returns the minimum number of `#`s
        // required to wrap the text.
        let mut num_of_hashes = 0;
        let mut count = 0;
        for ch in stripped.chars() {
            count = match ch {
                '"' => 1,
                '#' if count > 0 => count + 1,
                _ => 0,
            };
            num_of_hashes = cmp::max(num_of_hashes, count);
        }

        let body = TokenTree::Delimited(sp, Delimited {
            delim: token::Bracket,
            tts: [TokenTree::Token(sp, token::Ident(ast::Ident::from_str("doc"))),
                  TokenTree::Token(sp, token::Eq),
                  TokenTree::Token(sp, token::Literal(
                      token::StrRaw(Symbol::intern(&stripped), num_of_hashes), None))]
                .iter().cloned().collect::<TokenStream>().into(),
        });

        self.stack.push(mem::replace(&mut self.frame, TokenCursorFrame::new(sp, &Delimited {
            delim: token::NoDelim,
            tts: if doc_comment_style(&name.as_str()) == AttrStyle::Inner {
                [TokenTree::Token(sp, token::Pound), TokenTree::Token(sp, token::Not), body]
                    .iter().cloned().collect::<TokenStream>().into()
            } else {
                [TokenTree::Token(sp, token::Pound), body]
                    .iter().cloned().collect::<TokenStream>().into()
            },
        })));

        self.next()
    }
}

#[derive(PartialEq, Eq, Clone)]
pub enum TokenType {
    Token(token::Token),
    Keyword(keywords::Keyword),
    Operator,
    Lifetime,
    Ident,
    Path,
    Type,
}

impl TokenType {
    fn to_string(&self) -> String {
        match *self {
            TokenType::Token(ref t) => format!("`{}`", Parser::token_to_string(t)),
            TokenType::Keyword(kw) => format!("`{}`", kw.name()),
            TokenType::Operator => "an operator".to_string(),
            TokenType::Lifetime => "lifetime".to_string(),
            TokenType::Ident => "identifier".to_string(),
            TokenType::Path => "path".to_string(),
            TokenType::Type => "type".to_string(),
        }
    }
}

fn is_ident_or_underscore(t: &token::Token) -> bool {
    t.is_ident() || *t == token::Underscore
}

/// Information about the path to a module.
pub struct ModulePath {
    pub name: String,
    pub path_exists: bool,
    pub result: Result<ModulePathSuccess, Error>,
}

pub struct ModulePathSuccess {
    pub path: PathBuf,
    pub directory_ownership: DirectoryOwnership,
    warn: bool,
}

pub struct ModulePathError {
    pub err_msg: String,
    pub help_msg: String,
}

pub enum Error {
    FileNotFoundForModule {
        mod_name: String,
        default_path: String,
        secondary_path: String,
        dir_path: String,
    },
    DuplicatePaths {
        mod_name: String,
        default_path: String,
        secondary_path: String,
    },
    UselessDocComment,
    InclusiveRangeWithNoEnd,
}

impl Error {
    pub fn span_err<'a>(self, sp: Span, handler: &'a errors::Handler) -> DiagnosticBuilder<'a> {
        match self {
            Error::FileNotFoundForModule { ref mod_name,
                                           ref default_path,
                                           ref secondary_path,
                                           ref dir_path } => {
                let mut err = struct_span_err!(handler, sp, E0583,
                                               "file not found for module `{}`", mod_name);
                err.help(&format!("name the file either {} or {} inside the directory {:?}",
                                  default_path,
                                  secondary_path,
                                  dir_path));
                err
            }
            Error::DuplicatePaths { ref mod_name, ref default_path, ref secondary_path } => {
                let mut err = struct_span_err!(handler, sp, E0584,
                                               "file for module `{}` found at both {} and {}",
                                               mod_name,
                                               default_path,
                                               secondary_path);
                err.help("delete or rename one of them to remove the ambiguity");
                err
            }
            Error::UselessDocComment => {
                let mut err = struct_span_err!(handler, sp, E0585,
                                  "found a documentation comment that doesn't document anything");
                err.help("doc comments must come before what they document, maybe a comment was \
                          intended with `//`?");
                err
            }
            Error::InclusiveRangeWithNoEnd => {
                let mut err = struct_span_err!(handler, sp, E0586,
                                               "inclusive range with no end");
                err.help("inclusive ranges must be bounded at the end (`...b` or `a...b`)");
                err
            }
        }
    }
}

pub enum LhsExpr {
    NotYetParsed,
    AttributesParsed(ThinVec<Attribute>),
    AlreadyParsed(P<Expr>),
}

impl From<Option<ThinVec<Attribute>>> for LhsExpr {
    fn from(o: Option<ThinVec<Attribute>>) -> Self {
        if let Some(attrs) = o {
            LhsExpr::AttributesParsed(attrs)
        } else {
            LhsExpr::NotYetParsed
        }
    }
}

impl From<P<Expr>> for LhsExpr {
    fn from(expr: P<Expr>) -> Self {
        LhsExpr::AlreadyParsed(expr)
    }
}

/// Create a placeholder argument.
fn dummy_arg(span: Span) -> Arg {
    let spanned = Spanned {
        span: span,
        node: keywords::Invalid.ident()
    };
    let pat = P(Pat {
        id: ast::DUMMY_NODE_ID,
        node: PatKind::Ident(BindingMode::ByValue(Mutability::Immutable), spanned, None),
        span: span
    });
    let ty = Ty {
        node: TyKind::Err,
        span: span,
        id: ast::DUMMY_NODE_ID
    };
    Arg { ty: P(ty), pat: pat, id: ast::DUMMY_NODE_ID }
}

impl<'a> Parser<'a> {
    pub fn new(sess: &'a ParseSess,
               tokens: TokenStream,
               directory: Option<Directory>,
               desugar_doc_comments: bool)
               -> Self {
        let mut parser = Parser {
            sess: sess,
            token: token::Underscore,
            span: syntax_pos::DUMMY_SP,
            prev_span: syntax_pos::DUMMY_SP,
            meta_var_span: None,
            prev_token_kind: PrevTokenKind::Other,
            restrictions: Restrictions::empty(),
            obsolete_set: HashSet::new(),
            directory: Directory { path: PathBuf::new(), ownership: DirectoryOwnership::Owned },
            root_module_name: None,
            expected_tokens: Vec::new(),
            token_cursor: TokenCursor {
                frame: TokenCursorFrame::new(syntax_pos::DUMMY_SP, &Delimited {
                    delim: token::NoDelim,
                    tts: tokens.into(),
                }),
                stack: Vec::new(),
            },
            desugar_doc_comments: desugar_doc_comments,
            cfg_mods: true,
        };

        let tok = parser.next_tok();
        parser.token = tok.tok;
        parser.span = tok.sp;
        if let Some(directory) = directory {
            parser.directory = directory;
        } else if parser.span != syntax_pos::DUMMY_SP {
            parser.directory.path = PathBuf::from(sess.codemap().span_to_filename(parser.span));
            parser.directory.path.pop();
        }
        parser.process_potential_macro_variable();
        parser
    }

    fn next_tok(&mut self) -> TokenAndSpan {
        let mut next = match self.desugar_doc_comments {
            true => self.token_cursor.next_desugared(),
            false => self.token_cursor.next(),
        };
        if next.sp == syntax_pos::DUMMY_SP {
            next.sp = self.prev_span;
        }
        next
    }

    /// Convert a token to a string using self's reader
    pub fn token_to_string(token: &token::Token) -> String {
        pprust::token_to_string(token)
    }

    /// Convert the current token to a string using self's reader
    pub fn this_token_to_string(&self) -> String {
        Parser::token_to_string(&self.token)
    }

    pub fn this_token_descr(&self) -> String {
        let s = self.this_token_to_string();
        if self.token.is_strict_keyword() {
            format!("keyword `{}`", s)
        } else if self.token.is_reserved_keyword() {
            format!("reserved keyword `{}`", s)
        } else {
            format!("`{}`", s)
        }
    }

    pub fn unexpected_last<T>(&self, t: &token::Token) -> PResult<'a, T> {
        let token_str = Parser::token_to_string(t);
        Err(self.span_fatal(self.prev_span, &format!("unexpected token: `{}`", token_str)))
    }

    pub fn unexpected<T>(&mut self) -> PResult<'a, T> {
        match self.expect_one_of(&[], &[]) {
            Err(e) => Err(e),
            Ok(_) => unreachable!(),
        }
    }

    /// Expect and consume the token t. Signal an error if
    /// the next token is not t.
    pub fn expect(&mut self, t: &token::Token) -> PResult<'a,  ()> {
        if self.expected_tokens.is_empty() {
            if self.token == *t {
                self.bump();
                Ok(())
            } else {
                let token_str = Parser::token_to_string(t);
                let this_token_str = self.this_token_to_string();
                Err(self.fatal(&format!("expected `{}`, found `{}`",
                                   token_str,
                                   this_token_str)))
            }
        } else {
            self.expect_one_of(unsafe { slice::from_raw_parts(t, 1) }, &[])
        }
    }

    /// Expect next token to be edible or inedible token.  If edible,
    /// then consume it; if inedible, then return without consuming
    /// anything.  Signal a fatal error if next token is unexpected.
    pub fn expect_one_of(&mut self,
                         edible: &[token::Token],
                         inedible: &[token::Token]) -> PResult<'a,  ()>{
        fn tokens_to_string(tokens: &[TokenType]) -> String {
            let mut i = tokens.iter();
            // This might be a sign we need a connect method on Iterator.
            let b = i.next()
                     .map_or("".to_string(), |t| t.to_string());
            i.enumerate().fold(b, |mut b, (i, ref a)| {
                if tokens.len() > 2 && i == tokens.len() - 2 {
                    b.push_str(", or ");
                } else if tokens.len() == 2 && i == tokens.len() - 2 {
                    b.push_str(" or ");
                } else {
                    b.push_str(", ");
                }
                b.push_str(&a.to_string());
                b
            })
        }
        if edible.contains(&self.token) {
            self.bump();
            Ok(())
        } else if inedible.contains(&self.token) {
            // leave it in the input
            Ok(())
        } else {
            let mut expected = edible.iter()
                .map(|x| TokenType::Token(x.clone()))
                .chain(inedible.iter().map(|x| TokenType::Token(x.clone())))
                .chain(self.expected_tokens.iter().cloned())
                .collect::<Vec<_>>();
            expected.sort_by(|a, b| a.to_string().cmp(&b.to_string()));
            expected.dedup();
            let expect = tokens_to_string(&expected[..]);
            let actual = self.this_token_to_string();
            let (msg_exp, (label_sp, label_exp)) = if expected.len() > 1 {
                let short_expect = if expected.len() > 6 {
                    format!("{} possible tokens", expected.len())
                } else {
                    expect.clone()
                };
                (format!("expected one of {}, found `{}`", expect, actual),
                 (self.prev_span.next_point(), format!("expected one of {} here", short_expect)))
            } else if expected.is_empty() {
                (format!("unexpected token: `{}`", actual),
                 (self.prev_span, "unexpected token after this".to_string()))
            } else {
                (format!("expected {}, found `{}`", expect, actual),
                 (self.prev_span.next_point(), format!("expected {} here", expect)))
            };
            let mut err = self.fatal(&msg_exp);
            let sp = if self.token == token::Token::Eof {
                // This is EOF, don't want to point at the following char, but rather the last token
                self.prev_span
            } else {
                label_sp
            };
            if self.span.contains(sp) {
                err.span_label(self.span, &label_exp);
            } else {
                err.span_label(sp, &label_exp);
                err.span_label(self.span, &"unexpected token");
            }
            Err(err)
        }
    }

    /// returns the span of expr, if it was not interpolated or the span of the interpolated token
    fn interpolated_or_expr_span(&self,
                                 expr: PResult<'a, P<Expr>>)
                                 -> PResult<'a, (Span, P<Expr>)> {
        expr.map(|e| {
            if self.prev_token_kind == PrevTokenKind::Interpolated {
                (self.prev_span, e)
            } else {
                (e.span, e)
            }
        })
    }

    pub fn parse_ident(&mut self) -> PResult<'a, ast::Ident> {
        self.check_strict_keywords();
        self.check_reserved_keywords();
        match self.token {
            token::Ident(i) => {
                self.bump();
                Ok(i)
            }
            _ => {
                Err(if self.prev_token_kind == PrevTokenKind::DocComment {
                        self.span_fatal_err(self.prev_span, Error::UselessDocComment)
                    } else {
                        let mut err = self.fatal(&format!("expected identifier, found `{}`",
                                                          self.this_token_to_string()));
                        if self.token == token::Underscore {
                            err.note("`_` is a wildcard pattern, not an identifier");
                        }
                        err
                    })
            }
        }
    }

    /// Check if the next token is `tok`, and return `true` if so.
    ///
    /// This method will automatically add `tok` to `expected_tokens` if `tok` is not
    /// encountered.
    pub fn check(&mut self, tok: &token::Token) -> bool {
        let is_present = self.token == *tok;
        if !is_present { self.expected_tokens.push(TokenType::Token(tok.clone())); }
        is_present
    }

    /// Consume token 'tok' if it exists. Returns true if the given
    /// token was present, false otherwise.
    pub fn eat(&mut self, tok: &token::Token) -> bool {
        let is_present = self.check(tok);
        if is_present { self.bump() }
        is_present
    }

    pub fn check_keyword(&mut self, kw: keywords::Keyword) -> bool {
        self.expected_tokens.push(TokenType::Keyword(kw));
        self.token.is_keyword(kw)
    }

    /// If the next token is the given keyword, eat it and return
    /// true. Otherwise, return false.
    pub fn eat_keyword(&mut self, kw: keywords::Keyword) -> bool {
        if self.check_keyword(kw) {
            self.bump();
            true
        } else {
            false
        }
    }

    pub fn eat_keyword_noexpect(&mut self, kw: keywords::Keyword) -> bool {
        if self.token.is_keyword(kw) {
            self.bump();
            true
        } else {
            false
        }
    }

    pub fn check_contextual_keyword(&mut self, ident: Ident) -> bool {
        self.expected_tokens.push(TokenType::Token(token::Ident(ident)));
        if let token::Ident(ref cur_ident) = self.token {
            cur_ident.name == ident.name
        } else {
            false
        }
    }

    pub fn eat_contextual_keyword(&mut self, ident: Ident) -> bool {
        if self.check_contextual_keyword(ident) {
            self.bump();
            true
        } else {
            false
        }
    }

    /// If the given word is not a keyword, signal an error.
    /// If the next token is not the given word, signal an error.
    /// Otherwise, eat it.
    pub fn expect_keyword(&mut self, kw: keywords::Keyword) -> PResult<'a, ()> {
        if !self.eat_keyword(kw) {
            self.unexpected()
        } else {
            Ok(())
        }
    }

    /// Signal an error if the given string is a strict keyword
    pub fn check_strict_keywords(&mut self) {
        if self.token.is_strict_keyword() {
            let token_str = self.this_token_to_string();
            let span = self.span;
            self.span_err(span,
                          &format!("expected identifier, found keyword `{}`",
                                  token_str));
        }
    }

    /// Signal an error if the current token is a reserved keyword
    pub fn check_reserved_keywords(&mut self) {
        if self.token.is_reserved_keyword() {
            let token_str = self.this_token_to_string();
            self.fatal(&format!("`{}` is a reserved keyword", token_str)).emit()
        }
    }

    fn check_ident(&mut self) -> bool {
        if self.token.is_ident() {
            true
        } else {
            self.expected_tokens.push(TokenType::Ident);
            false
        }
    }

    fn check_path(&mut self) -> bool {
        if self.token.is_path_start() {
            true
        } else {
            self.expected_tokens.push(TokenType::Path);
            false
        }
    }

    fn check_type(&mut self) -> bool {
        if self.token.can_begin_type() {
            true
        } else {
            self.expected_tokens.push(TokenType::Type);
            false
        }
    }

    /// Expect and consume an `&`. If `&&` is seen, replace it with a single
    /// `&` and continue. If an `&` is not seen, signal an error.
    fn expect_and(&mut self) -> PResult<'a, ()> {
        self.expected_tokens.push(TokenType::Token(token::BinOp(token::And)));
        match self.token {
            token::BinOp(token::And) => {
                self.bump();
                Ok(())
            }
            token::AndAnd => {
                let span = self.span;
                let lo = span.lo + BytePos(1);
                Ok(self.bump_with(token::BinOp(token::And), Span { lo: lo, ..span }))
            }
            _ => self.unexpected()
        }
    }

    pub fn expect_no_suffix(&self, sp: Span, kind: &str, suffix: Option<ast::Name>) {
        match suffix {
            None => {/* everything ok */}
            Some(suf) => {
                let text = suf.as_str();
                if text.is_empty() {
                    self.span_bug(sp, "found empty literal suffix in Some")
                }
                self.span_err(sp, &format!("{} with a suffix is invalid", kind));
            }
        }
    }

    /// Attempt to consume a `<`. If `<<` is seen, replace it with a single
    /// `<` and continue. If a `<` is not seen, return false.
    ///
    /// This is meant to be used when parsing generics on a path to get the
    /// starting token.
    fn eat_lt(&mut self) -> bool {
        self.expected_tokens.push(TokenType::Token(token::Lt));
        match self.token {
            token::Lt => {
                self.bump();
                true
            }
            token::BinOp(token::Shl) => {
                let span = self.span;
                let lo = span.lo + BytePos(1);
                self.bump_with(token::Lt, Span { lo: lo, ..span });
                true
            }
            _ => false,
        }
    }

    fn expect_lt(&mut self) -> PResult<'a, ()> {
        if !self.eat_lt() {
            self.unexpected()
        } else {
            Ok(())
        }
    }

    /// Expect and consume a GT. if a >> is seen, replace it
    /// with a single > and continue. If a GT is not seen,
    /// signal an error.
    pub fn expect_gt(&mut self) -> PResult<'a, ()> {
        self.expected_tokens.push(TokenType::Token(token::Gt));
        match self.token {
            token::Gt => {
                self.bump();
                Ok(())
            }
            token::BinOp(token::Shr) => {
                let span = self.span;
                let lo = span.lo + BytePos(1);
                Ok(self.bump_with(token::Gt, Span { lo: lo, ..span }))
            }
            token::BinOpEq(token::Shr) => {
                let span = self.span;
                let lo = span.lo + BytePos(1);
                Ok(self.bump_with(token::Ge, Span { lo: lo, ..span }))
            }
            token::Ge => {
                let span = self.span;
                let lo = span.lo + BytePos(1);
                Ok(self.bump_with(token::Eq, Span { lo: lo, ..span }))
            }
            _ => self.unexpected()
        }
    }

    pub fn parse_seq_to_before_gt_or_return<T, F>(&mut self,
                                                  sep: Option<token::Token>,
                                                  mut f: F)
                                                  -> PResult<'a, (Vec<T>, bool)>
        where F: FnMut(&mut Parser<'a>) -> PResult<'a, Option<T>>,
    {
        let mut v = Vec::new();
        // This loop works by alternating back and forth between parsing types
        // and commas.  For example, given a string `A, B,>`, the parser would
        // first parse `A`, then a comma, then `B`, then a comma. After that it
        // would encounter a `>` and stop. This lets the parser handle trailing
        // commas in generic parameters, because it can stop either after
        // parsing a type or after parsing a comma.
        for i in 0.. {
            if self.check(&token::Gt)
                || self.token == token::BinOp(token::Shr)
                || self.token == token::Ge
                || self.token == token::BinOpEq(token::Shr) {
                break;
            }

            if i % 2 == 0 {
                match f(self)? {
                    Some(result) => v.push(result),
                    None => return Ok((v, true))
                }
            } else {
                if let Some(t) = sep.as_ref() {
                    self.expect(t)?;
                }

            }
        }
        return Ok((v, false));
    }

    /// Parse a sequence bracketed by '<' and '>', stopping
    /// before the '>'.
    pub fn parse_seq_to_before_gt<T, F>(&mut self,
                                        sep: Option<token::Token>,
                                        mut f: F)
                                        -> PResult<'a, Vec<T>> where
        F: FnMut(&mut Parser<'a>) -> PResult<'a, T>,
    {
        let (result, returned) = self.parse_seq_to_before_gt_or_return(sep,
                                                                       |p| Ok(Some(f(p)?)))?;
        assert!(!returned);
        return Ok(result);
    }

    pub fn parse_seq_to_gt<T, F>(&mut self,
                                 sep: Option<token::Token>,
                                 f: F)
                                 -> PResult<'a, Vec<T>> where
        F: FnMut(&mut Parser<'a>) -> PResult<'a, T>,
    {
        let v = self.parse_seq_to_before_gt(sep, f)?;
        self.expect_gt()?;
        return Ok(v);
    }

    pub fn parse_seq_to_gt_or_return<T, F>(&mut self,
                                           sep: Option<token::Token>,
                                           f: F)
                                           -> PResult<'a, (Vec<T>, bool)> where
        F: FnMut(&mut Parser<'a>) -> PResult<'a, Option<T>>,
    {
        let (v, returned) = self.parse_seq_to_before_gt_or_return(sep, f)?;
        if !returned {
            self.expect_gt()?;
        }
        return Ok((v, returned));
    }

    /// Eat and discard tokens until one of `kets` is encountered. Respects token trees,
    /// passes through any errors encountered. Used for error recovery.
    pub fn eat_to_tokens(&mut self, kets: &[&token::Token]) {
        let handler = self.diagnostic();

        self.parse_seq_to_before_tokens(kets,
                                        SeqSep::none(),
                                        |p| Ok(p.parse_token_tree()),
                                        |mut e| handler.cancel(&mut e));
    }

    /// Parse a sequence, including the closing delimiter. The function
    /// f must consume tokens until reaching the next separator or
    /// closing bracket.
    pub fn parse_seq_to_end<T, F>(&mut self,
                                  ket: &token::Token,
                                  sep: SeqSep,
                                  f: F)
                                  -> PResult<'a, Vec<T>> where
        F: FnMut(&mut Parser<'a>) -> PResult<'a,  T>,
    {
        let val = self.parse_seq_to_before_end(ket, sep, f);
        self.bump();
        Ok(val)
    }

    /// Parse a sequence, not including the closing delimiter. The function
    /// f must consume tokens until reaching the next separator or
    /// closing bracket.
    pub fn parse_seq_to_before_end<T, F>(&mut self,
                                         ket: &token::Token,
                                         sep: SeqSep,
                                         f: F)
                                         -> Vec<T>
        where F: FnMut(&mut Parser<'a>) -> PResult<'a,  T>
    {
        self.parse_seq_to_before_tokens(&[ket], sep, f, |mut e| e.emit())
    }

    // `fe` is an error handler.
    fn parse_seq_to_before_tokens<T, F, Fe>(&mut self,
                                            kets: &[&token::Token],
                                            sep: SeqSep,
                                            mut f: F,
                                            mut fe: Fe)
                                            -> Vec<T>
        where F: FnMut(&mut Parser<'a>) -> PResult<'a,  T>,
              Fe: FnMut(DiagnosticBuilder)
    {
        let mut first: bool = true;
        let mut v = vec![];
        while !kets.contains(&&self.token) {
            match self.token {
                token::CloseDelim(..) | token::Eof => break,
                _ => {}
            };
            match sep.sep {
                Some(ref t) => {
                    if first {
                        first = false;
                    } else {
                        if let Err(e) = self.expect(t) {
                            fe(e);
                            break;
                        }
                    }
                }
                _ => ()
            }
            if sep.trailing_sep_allowed && kets.iter().any(|k| self.check(k)) {
                break;
            }

            match f(self) {
                Ok(t) => v.push(t),
                Err(e) => {
                    fe(e);
                    break;
                }
            }
        }

        v
    }

    /// Parse a sequence, including the closing delimiter. The function
    /// f must consume tokens until reaching the next separator or
    /// closing bracket.
    pub fn parse_unspanned_seq<T, F>(&mut self,
                                     bra: &token::Token,
                                     ket: &token::Token,
                                     sep: SeqSep,
                                     f: F)
                                     -> PResult<'a, Vec<T>> where
        F: FnMut(&mut Parser<'a>) -> PResult<'a,  T>,
    {
        self.expect(bra)?;
        let result = self.parse_seq_to_before_end(ket, sep, f);
        if self.token == *ket {
            self.bump();
        }
        Ok(result)
    }

    // NB: Do not use this function unless you actually plan to place the
    // spanned list in the AST.
    pub fn parse_seq<T, F>(&mut self,
                           bra: &token::Token,
                           ket: &token::Token,
                           sep: SeqSep,
                           f: F)
                           -> PResult<'a, Spanned<Vec<T>>> where
        F: FnMut(&mut Parser<'a>) -> PResult<'a,  T>,
    {
        let lo = self.span;
        self.expect(bra)?;
        let result = self.parse_seq_to_before_end(ket, sep, f);
        let hi = self.span;
        self.bump();
        Ok(respan(lo.to(hi), result))
    }

    /// Advance the parser by one token
    pub fn bump(&mut self) {
        if self.prev_token_kind == PrevTokenKind::Eof {
            // Bumping after EOF is a bad sign, usually an infinite loop.
            self.bug("attempted to bump the parser past EOF (may be stuck in a loop)");
        }

        self.prev_span = self.meta_var_span.take().unwrap_or(self.span);

        // Record last token kind for possible error recovery.
        self.prev_token_kind = match self.token {
            token::DocComment(..) => PrevTokenKind::DocComment,
            token::Comma => PrevTokenKind::Comma,
            token::BinOp(token::Plus) => PrevTokenKind::Plus,
            token::Interpolated(..) => PrevTokenKind::Interpolated,
            token::Eof => PrevTokenKind::Eof,
            _ => PrevTokenKind::Other,
        };

        let next = self.next_tok();
        self.span = next.sp;
        self.token = next.tok;
        self.expected_tokens.clear();
        // check after each token
        self.process_potential_macro_variable();
    }

    /// Advance the parser using provided token as a next one. Use this when
    /// consuming a part of a token. For example a single `<` from `<<`.
    pub fn bump_with(&mut self, next: token::Token, span: Span) {
        self.prev_span = Span { hi: span.lo, ..self.span };
        // It would be incorrect to record the kind of the current token, but
        // fortunately for tokens currently using `bump_with`, the
        // prev_token_kind will be of no use anyway.
        self.prev_token_kind = PrevTokenKind::Other;
        self.span = span;
        self.token = next;
        self.expected_tokens.clear();
    }

    pub fn look_ahead<R, F>(&self, dist: usize, f: F) -> R where
        F: FnOnce(&token::Token) -> R,
    {
        if dist == 0 {
            return f(&self.token)
        }

        f(&match self.token_cursor.frame.tree_cursor.look_ahead(dist - 1) {
            Some(tree) => match tree {
                TokenTree::Token(_, tok) => tok,
                TokenTree::Delimited(_, delimited) => token::OpenDelim(delimited.delim),
            },
            None => token::CloseDelim(self.token_cursor.frame.delim),
        })
    }
    pub fn fatal(&self, m: &str) -> DiagnosticBuilder<'a> {
        self.sess.span_diagnostic.struct_span_fatal(self.span, m)
    }
    pub fn span_fatal(&self, sp: Span, m: &str) -> DiagnosticBuilder<'a> {
        self.sess.span_diagnostic.struct_span_fatal(sp, m)
    }
    pub fn span_fatal_err(&self, sp: Span, err: Error) -> DiagnosticBuilder<'a> {
        err.span_err(sp, self.diagnostic())
    }
    pub fn span_fatal_help(&self, sp: Span, m: &str, help: &str) -> DiagnosticBuilder<'a> {
        let mut err = self.sess.span_diagnostic.struct_span_fatal(sp, m);
        err.help(help);
        err
    }
    pub fn bug(&self, m: &str) -> ! {
        self.sess.span_diagnostic.span_bug(self.span, m)
    }
    pub fn warn(&self, m: &str) {
        self.sess.span_diagnostic.span_warn(self.span, m)
    }
    pub fn span_warn(&self, sp: Span, m: &str) {
        self.sess.span_diagnostic.span_warn(sp, m)
    }
    pub fn span_err(&self, sp: Span, m: &str) {
        self.sess.span_diagnostic.span_err(sp, m)
    }
    pub fn span_err_help(&self, sp: Span, m: &str, h: &str) {
        let mut err = self.sess.span_diagnostic.mut_span_err(sp, m);
        err.help(h);
        err.emit();
    }
    pub fn span_bug(&self, sp: Span, m: &str) -> ! {
        self.sess.span_diagnostic.span_bug(sp, m)
    }
    pub fn abort_if_errors(&self) {
        self.sess.span_diagnostic.abort_if_errors();
    }

    fn cancel(&self, err: &mut DiagnosticBuilder) {
        self.sess.span_diagnostic.cancel(err)
    }

    pub fn diagnostic(&self) -> &'a errors::Handler {
        &self.sess.span_diagnostic
    }

    /// Is the current token one of the keywords that signals a bare function
    /// type?
    pub fn token_is_bare_fn_keyword(&mut self) -> bool {
        self.check_keyword(keywords::Fn) ||
            self.check_keyword(keywords::Unsafe) ||
            self.check_keyword(keywords::Extern)
    }

    fn get_label(&mut self) -> ast::Ident {
        match self.token {
            token::Lifetime(ref ident) => *ident,
            _ => self.bug("not a lifetime"),
        }
    }

    /// parse a TyKind::BareFn type:
    pub fn parse_ty_bare_fn(&mut self, lifetime_defs: Vec<LifetimeDef>)
                            -> PResult<'a, TyKind> {
        /*

        [unsafe] [extern "ABI"] fn (S) -> T
         ^~~~^           ^~~~^     ^~^    ^
           |               |        |     |
           |               |        |   Return type
           |               |      Argument types
           |               |
           |              ABI
        Function Style
        */

        let unsafety = self.parse_unsafety()?;
        let abi = if self.eat_keyword(keywords::Extern) {
            self.parse_opt_abi()?.unwrap_or(Abi::C)
        } else {
            Abi::Rust
        };

        self.expect_keyword(keywords::Fn)?;
        let (inputs, variadic) = self.parse_fn_args(false, true)?;
        let ret_ty = self.parse_ret_ty()?;
        let decl = P(FnDecl {
            inputs: inputs,
            output: ret_ty,
            variadic: variadic
        });
        Ok(TyKind::BareFn(P(BareFnTy {
            abi: abi,
            unsafety: unsafety,
            lifetimes: lifetime_defs,
            decl: decl
        })))
    }

    pub fn parse_unsafety(&mut self) -> PResult<'a, Unsafety> {
        if self.eat_keyword(keywords::Unsafe) {
            return Ok(Unsafety::Unsafe);
        } else {
            return Ok(Unsafety::Normal);
        }
    }

    /// Parse the items in a trait declaration
    pub fn parse_trait_item(&mut self, at_end: &mut bool) -> PResult<'a, TraitItem> {
        maybe_whole!(self, NtTraitItem, |x| x);
        let mut attrs = self.parse_outer_attributes()?;
        let lo = self.span;

        let (name, node) = if self.eat_keyword(keywords::Type) {
            let TyParam {ident, bounds, default, ..} = self.parse_ty_param(vec![])?;
            self.expect(&token::Semi)?;
            (ident, TraitItemKind::Type(bounds, default))
        } else if self.is_const_item() {
            self.expect_keyword(keywords::Const)?;
            let ident = self.parse_ident()?;
            self.expect(&token::Colon)?;
            let ty = self.parse_ty()?;
            let default = if self.check(&token::Eq) {
                self.bump();
                let expr = self.parse_expr()?;
                self.expect(&token::Semi)?;
                Some(expr)
            } else {
                self.expect(&token::Semi)?;
                None
            };
            (ident, TraitItemKind::Const(ty, default))
        } else if self.token.is_path_start() {
            // trait item macro.
            // code copied from parse_macro_use_or_failure... abstraction!
            let prev_span = self.prev_span;
            let lo = self.span;
            let pth = self.parse_path(PathStyle::Mod)?;

            if pth.segments.len() == 1 {
                if !self.eat(&token::Not) {
                    return Err(self.missing_assoc_item_kind_err("trait", prev_span));
                }
            } else {
                self.expect(&token::Not)?;
            }

            // eat a matched-delimiter token tree:
            let (delim, tts) = self.expect_delimited_token_tree()?;
            if delim != token::Brace {
                self.expect(&token::Semi)?
            }

            let mac = respan(lo.to(self.prev_span), Mac_ { path: pth, tts: tts });
            (keywords::Invalid.ident(), ast::TraitItemKind::Macro(mac))
        } else {
            let (constness, unsafety, abi) = match self.parse_fn_front_matter() {
                Ok(cua) => cua,
                Err(e) => return Err(e),
            };

            let ident = self.parse_ident()?;
            let mut generics = self.parse_generics()?;

            let d = self.parse_fn_decl_with_self(|p: &mut Parser<'a>|{
                // This is somewhat dubious; We don't want to allow
                // argument names to be left off if there is a
                // definition...
                p.parse_arg_general(false)
            })?;

            generics.where_clause = self.parse_where_clause()?;
            let sig = ast::MethodSig {
                unsafety: unsafety,
                constness: constness,
                decl: d,
                generics: generics,
                abi: abi,
            };

            let body = match self.token {
                token::Semi => {
                    self.bump();
                    *at_end = true;
                    debug!("parse_trait_methods(): parsing required method");
                    None
                }
                token::OpenDelim(token::Brace) => {
                    debug!("parse_trait_methods(): parsing provided method");
                    *at_end = true;
                    let (inner_attrs, body) = self.parse_inner_attrs_and_block()?;
                    attrs.extend(inner_attrs.iter().cloned());
                    Some(body)
                }
                _ => {
                    let token_str = self.this_token_to_string();
                    return Err(self.fatal(&format!("expected `;` or `{{`, found `{}`", token_str)));
                }
            };
            (ident, ast::TraitItemKind::Method(sig, body))
        };

        Ok(TraitItem {
            id: ast::DUMMY_NODE_ID,
            ident: name,
            attrs: attrs,
            node: node,
            span: lo.to(self.prev_span),
        })
    }

    /// Parse optional return type [ -> TY ] in function decl
    pub fn parse_ret_ty(&mut self) -> PResult<'a, FunctionRetTy> {
        if self.eat(&token::RArrow) {
            Ok(FunctionRetTy::Ty(self.parse_ty_no_plus()?))
        } else {
            Ok(FunctionRetTy::Default(Span { hi: self.span.lo, ..self.span }))
        }
    }

    // Parse a type
    pub fn parse_ty(&mut self) -> PResult<'a, P<Ty>> {
        self.parse_ty_common(true)
    }

    /// Parse a type in restricted contexts where `+` is not permitted.
    /// Example 1: `&'a TYPE`
    ///     `+` is prohibited to maintain operator priority (P(+) < P(&)).
    /// Example 2: `value1 as TYPE + value2`
    ///     `+` is prohibited to avoid interactions with expression grammar.
    fn parse_ty_no_plus(&mut self) -> PResult<'a, P<Ty>> {
        self.parse_ty_common(false)
    }

    fn parse_ty_common(&mut self, allow_plus: bool) -> PResult<'a, P<Ty>> {
        maybe_whole!(self, NtTy, |x| x);

        let lo = self.span;
        let node = if self.eat(&token::OpenDelim(token::Paren)) {
            // `(TYPE)` is a parenthesized type.
            // `(TYPE,)` is a tuple with a single field of type TYPE.
            let mut ts = vec![];
            let mut last_comma = false;
            while self.token != token::CloseDelim(token::Paren) {
                ts.push(self.parse_ty()?);
                if self.eat(&token::Comma) {
                    last_comma = true;
                } else {
                    last_comma = false;
                    break;
                }
            }
            let trailing_plus = self.prev_token_kind == PrevTokenKind::Plus;
            self.expect(&token::CloseDelim(token::Paren))?;

            if ts.len() == 1 && !last_comma {
                let ty = ts.into_iter().nth(0).unwrap().unwrap();
                let maybe_bounds = allow_plus && self.token == token::BinOp(token::Plus);
                match ty.node {
                    // `(TY_BOUND_NOPAREN) + BOUND + ...`.
                    TyKind::Path(None, ref path) if maybe_bounds => {
                        self.parse_remaining_bounds(Vec::new(), path.clone(), lo, true)?
                    }
                    TyKind::TraitObject(ref bounds)
                            if maybe_bounds && bounds.len() == 1 && !trailing_plus => {
                        let path = match bounds[0] {
                            TraitTyParamBound(ref pt, ..) => pt.trait_ref.path.clone(),
                            _ => self.bug("unexpected lifetime bound"),
                        };
                        self.parse_remaining_bounds(Vec::new(), path, lo, true)?
                    }
                    // `(TYPE)`
                    _ => TyKind::Paren(P(ty))
                }
            } else {
                TyKind::Tup(ts)
            }
        } else if self.eat(&token::Not) {
            // Never type `!`
            TyKind::Never
        } else if self.eat(&token::BinOp(token::Star)) {
            // Raw pointer
            TyKind::Ptr(self.parse_ptr()?)
        } else if self.eat(&token::OpenDelim(token::Bracket)) {
            // Array or slice
            let t = self.parse_ty()?;
            // Parse optional `; EXPR` in `[TYPE; EXPR]`
            let t = match self.maybe_parse_fixed_length_of_vec()? {
                None => TyKind::Slice(t),
                Some(suffix) => TyKind::Array(t, suffix),
            };
            self.expect(&token::CloseDelim(token::Bracket))?;
            t
        } else if self.check(&token::BinOp(token::And)) || self.check(&token::AndAnd) {
            // Reference
            self.expect_and()?;
            self.parse_borrowed_pointee()?
        } else if self.eat_keyword_noexpect(keywords::Typeof) {
            // `typeof(EXPR)`
            // In order to not be ambiguous, the type must be surrounded by parens.
            self.expect(&token::OpenDelim(token::Paren))?;
            let e = self.parse_expr()?;
            self.expect(&token::CloseDelim(token::Paren))?;
            TyKind::Typeof(e)
        } else if self.eat(&token::Underscore) {
            // A type to be inferred `_`
            TyKind::Infer
        } else if self.eat_lt() {
            // Qualified path
            let (qself, path) = self.parse_qualified_path(PathStyle::Type)?;
            TyKind::Path(Some(qself), path)
        } else if self.token.is_path_start() {
            // Simple path
            let path = self.parse_path(PathStyle::Type)?;
            if self.eat(&token::Not) {
                // Macro invocation in type position
                let (_, tts) = self.expect_delimited_token_tree()?;
                TyKind::Mac(respan(lo.to(self.span), Mac_ { path: path, tts: tts }))
            } else {
                // Just a type path or bound list (trait object type) starting with a trait.
                //   `Type`
                //   `Trait1 + Trait2 + 'a`
                if allow_plus && self.check(&token::BinOp(token::Plus)) {
                    self.parse_remaining_bounds(Vec::new(), path, lo, true)?
                } else {
                    TyKind::Path(None, path)
                }
            }
        } else if self.token_is_bare_fn_keyword() {
            // Function pointer type
            self.parse_ty_bare_fn(Vec::new())?
        } else if self.check_keyword(keywords::For) {
            // Function pointer type or bound list (trait object type) starting with a poly-trait.
            //   `for<'lt> [unsafe] [extern "ABI"] fn (&'lt S) -> T`
            //   `for<'lt> Trait1<'lt> + Trait2 + 'a`
            let lo = self.span;
            let lifetime_defs = self.parse_late_bound_lifetime_defs()?;
            if self.token_is_bare_fn_keyword() {
                self.parse_ty_bare_fn(lifetime_defs)?
            } else {
                let path = self.parse_path(PathStyle::Type)?;
                let parse_plus = allow_plus && self.check(&token::BinOp(token::Plus));
                self.parse_remaining_bounds(lifetime_defs, path, lo, parse_plus)?
            }
        } else if self.eat_keyword(keywords::Impl) {
            // FIXME: figure out priority of `+` in `impl Trait1 + Trait2` (#34511).
            TyKind::ImplTrait(self.parse_ty_param_bounds()?)
        } else if self.check(&token::Question) ||
                  self.check_lifetime() && self.look_ahead(1, |t| t == &token::BinOp(token::Plus)){
            // Bound list (trait object type)
            TyKind::TraitObject(self.parse_ty_param_bounds_common(allow_plus)?)
        } else {
            let msg = format!("expected type, found {}", self.this_token_descr());
            return Err(self.fatal(&msg));
        };

        let span = lo.to(self.prev_span);
        let ty = Ty { node: node, span: span, id: ast::DUMMY_NODE_ID };

        // Try to recover from use of `+` with incorrect priority.
        self.maybe_recover_from_bad_type_plus(allow_plus, &ty)?;

        Ok(P(ty))
    }

    fn parse_remaining_bounds(&mut self, lifetime_defs: Vec<LifetimeDef>, path: ast::Path,
                              lo: Span, parse_plus: bool) -> PResult<'a, TyKind> {
        let poly_trait_ref = PolyTraitRef::new(lifetime_defs, path, lo.to(self.prev_span));
        let mut bounds = vec![TraitTyParamBound(poly_trait_ref, TraitBoundModifier::None)];
        if parse_plus {
            self.bump(); // `+`
            bounds.append(&mut self.parse_ty_param_bounds()?);
        }
        Ok(TyKind::TraitObject(bounds))
    }

    fn maybe_recover_from_bad_type_plus(&mut self, allow_plus: bool, ty: &Ty) -> PResult<'a, ()> {
        // Do not add `+` to expected tokens.
        if !allow_plus || self.token != token::BinOp(token::Plus) {
            return Ok(())
        }

        self.bump(); // `+`
        let bounds = self.parse_ty_param_bounds()?;
        let sum_span = ty.span.to(self.prev_span);

        let mut err = struct_span_err!(self.sess.span_diagnostic, sum_span, E0178,
            "expected a path on the left-hand side of `+`, not `{}`", pprust::ty_to_string(&ty));

        match ty.node {
            TyKind::Rptr(ref lifetime, ref mut_ty) => {
                let sum_with_parens = pprust::to_string(|s| {
                    use print::pp::word;
                    use print::pprust::PrintState;

                    word(&mut s.s, "&")?;
                    s.print_opt_lifetime(lifetime)?;
                    s.print_mutability(mut_ty.mutbl)?;
                    s.popen()?;
                    s.print_type(&mut_ty.ty)?;
                    s.print_bounds(" +", &bounds)?;
                    s.pclose()
                });
                err.span_suggestion(sum_span, "try adding parentheses:", sum_with_parens);
            }
            TyKind::Ptr(..) | TyKind::BareFn(..) => {
                err.span_label(sum_span, &"perhaps you forgot parentheses?");
            }
            _ => {
                err.span_label(sum_span, &"expected a path");
            },
        }
        err.emit();
        Ok(())
    }

    fn parse_borrowed_pointee(&mut self) -> PResult<'a, TyKind> {
        let opt_lifetime = if self.check_lifetime() { Some(self.expect_lifetime()) } else { None };
        let mutbl = self.parse_mutability();
        let ty = self.parse_ty_no_plus()?;
        return Ok(TyKind::Rptr(opt_lifetime, MutTy { ty: ty, mutbl: mutbl }));
    }

    pub fn parse_ptr(&mut self) -> PResult<'a, MutTy> {
        let mutbl = if self.eat_keyword(keywords::Mut) {
            Mutability::Mutable
        } else if self.eat_keyword(keywords::Const) {
            Mutability::Immutable
        } else {
            let span = self.prev_span;
            self.span_err(span,
                          "expected mut or const in raw pointer type (use \
                           `*mut T` or `*const T` as appropriate)");
            Mutability::Immutable
        };
        let t = self.parse_ty_no_plus()?;
        Ok(MutTy { ty: t, mutbl: mutbl })
    }

    pub fn is_named_argument(&mut self) -> bool {
        let offset = match self.token {
            token::BinOp(token::And) => 1,
            token::AndAnd => 1,
            _ if self.token.is_keyword(keywords::Mut) => 1,
            _ => 0
        };

        debug!("parser is_named_argument offset:{}", offset);

        if offset == 0 {
            is_ident_or_underscore(&self.token)
                && self.look_ahead(1, |t| *t == token::Colon)
        } else {
            self.look_ahead(offset, |t| is_ident_or_underscore(t))
                && self.look_ahead(offset + 1, |t| *t == token::Colon)
        }
    }

    /// This version of parse arg doesn't necessarily require
    /// identifier names.
    pub fn parse_arg_general(&mut self, require_name: bool) -> PResult<'a, Arg> {
        maybe_whole!(self, NtArg, |x| x);

        let pat = if require_name || self.is_named_argument() {
            debug!("parse_arg_general parse_pat (require_name:{})",
                   require_name);
            let pat = self.parse_pat()?;

            self.expect(&token::Colon)?;
            pat
        } else {
            debug!("parse_arg_general ident_to_pat");
            let sp = self.prev_span;
            let spanned = Spanned { span: sp, node: keywords::Invalid.ident() };
            P(Pat {
                id: ast::DUMMY_NODE_ID,
                node: PatKind::Ident(BindingMode::ByValue(Mutability::Immutable),
                                     spanned, None),
                span: sp
            })
        };

        let t = self.parse_ty()?;

        Ok(Arg {
            ty: t,
            pat: pat,
            id: ast::DUMMY_NODE_ID,
        })
    }

    /// Parse a single function argument
    pub fn parse_arg(&mut self) -> PResult<'a, Arg> {
        self.parse_arg_general(true)
    }

    /// Parse an argument in a lambda header e.g. |arg, arg|
    pub fn parse_fn_block_arg(&mut self) -> PResult<'a, Arg> {
        let pat = self.parse_pat()?;
        let t = if self.eat(&token::Colon) {
            self.parse_ty()?
        } else {
            P(Ty {
                id: ast::DUMMY_NODE_ID,
                node: TyKind::Infer,
                span: self.span,
            })
        };
        Ok(Arg {
            ty: t,
            pat: pat,
            id: ast::DUMMY_NODE_ID
        })
    }

    pub fn maybe_parse_fixed_length_of_vec(&mut self) -> PResult<'a, Option<P<ast::Expr>>> {
        if self.eat(&token::Semi) {
            Ok(Some(self.parse_expr()?))
        } else {
            Ok(None)
        }
    }

    /// Matches token_lit = LIT_INTEGER | ...
    pub fn parse_lit_token(&mut self) -> PResult<'a, LitKind> {
        let out = match self.token {
            token::Interpolated(ref nt) => match **nt {
                token::NtExpr(ref v) => match v.node {
                    ExprKind::Lit(ref lit) => { lit.node.clone() }
                    _ => { return self.unexpected_last(&self.token); }
                },
                _ => { return self.unexpected_last(&self.token); }
            },
            token::Literal(lit, suf) => {
                let diag = Some((self.span, &self.sess.span_diagnostic));
                let (suffix_illegal, result) = parse::lit_token(lit, suf, diag);

                if suffix_illegal {
                    let sp = self.span;
                    self.expect_no_suffix(sp, &format!("{} literal", lit.short_name()), suf)
                }

                result.unwrap()
            }
            _ => { return self.unexpected_last(&self.token); }
        };

        self.bump();
        Ok(out)
    }

    /// Matches lit = true | false | token_lit
    pub fn parse_lit(&mut self) -> PResult<'a, Lit> {
        let lo = self.span;
        let lit = if self.eat_keyword(keywords::True) {
            LitKind::Bool(true)
        } else if self.eat_keyword(keywords::False) {
            LitKind::Bool(false)
        } else {
            let lit = self.parse_lit_token()?;
            lit
        };
        Ok(codemap::Spanned { node: lit, span: lo.to(self.prev_span) })
    }

    /// matches '-' lit | lit
    pub fn parse_pat_literal_maybe_minus(&mut self) -> PResult<'a, P<Expr>> {
        let minus_lo = self.span;
        let minus_present = self.eat(&token::BinOp(token::Minus));
        let lo = self.span;
        let literal = P(self.parse_lit()?);
        let hi = self.prev_span;
        let expr = self.mk_expr(lo.to(hi), ExprKind::Lit(literal), ThinVec::new());

        if minus_present {
            let minus_hi = self.prev_span;
            let unary = self.mk_unary(UnOp::Neg, expr);
            Ok(self.mk_expr(minus_lo.to(minus_hi), unary, ThinVec::new()))
        } else {
            Ok(expr)
        }
    }

    pub fn parse_path_segment_ident(&mut self) -> PResult<'a, ast::Ident> {
        match self.token {
            token::Ident(sid) if self.token.is_path_segment_keyword() => {
                self.bump();
                Ok(sid)
            }
            _ => self.parse_ident(),
         }
     }

    /// Parses qualified path.
    ///
    /// Assumes that the leading `<` has been parsed already.
    ///
    /// Qualifed paths are a part of the universal function call
    /// syntax (UFCS).
    ///
    /// `qualified_path = <type [as trait_ref]>::path`
    ///
    /// See `parse_path` for `mode` meaning.
    ///
    /// # Examples:
    ///
    /// `<T as U>::a`
    /// `<T as U>::F::a::<S>`
    pub fn parse_qualified_path(&mut self, mode: PathStyle)
                                -> PResult<'a, (QSelf, ast::Path)> {
        let span = self.prev_span;
        let self_type = self.parse_ty()?;
        let mut path = if self.eat_keyword(keywords::As) {
            self.parse_path(PathStyle::Type)?
        } else {
            ast::Path {
                span: span,
                segments: vec![]
            }
        };

        let qself = QSelf {
            ty: self_type,
            position: path.segments.len()
        };

        self.expect(&token::Gt)?;
        self.expect(&token::ModSep)?;

        let segments = match mode {
            PathStyle::Type => {
                self.parse_path_segments_without_colons()?
            }
            PathStyle::Expr => {
                self.parse_path_segments_with_colons()?
            }
            PathStyle::Mod => {
                self.parse_path_segments_without_types()?
            }
        };
        path.segments.extend(segments);

        path.span.hi = self.prev_span.hi;

        Ok((qself, path))
    }

    /// Parses a path and optional type parameter bounds, depending on the
    /// mode. The `mode` parameter determines whether lifetimes, types, and/or
    /// bounds are permitted and whether `::` must precede type parameter
    /// groups.
    pub fn parse_path(&mut self, mode: PathStyle) -> PResult<'a, ast::Path> {
        maybe_whole!(self, NtPath, |x| x);

        let lo = self.meta_var_span.unwrap_or(self.span);
        let is_global = self.eat(&token::ModSep);

        // Parse any number of segments and bound sets. A segment is an
        // identifier followed by an optional lifetime and a set of types.
        // A bound set is a set of type parameter bounds.
        let mut segments = match mode {
            PathStyle::Type => {
                self.parse_path_segments_without_colons()?
            }
            PathStyle::Expr => {
                self.parse_path_segments_with_colons()?
            }
            PathStyle::Mod => {
                self.parse_path_segments_without_types()?
            }
        };

        if is_global {
            segments.insert(0, PathSegment::crate_root());
        }

        // Assemble the result.
        Ok(ast::Path {
            span: lo.to(self.prev_span),
            segments: segments,
        })
    }

    /// Like `parse_path`, but also supports parsing `Word` meta items into paths for back-compat.
    /// This is used when parsing derive macro paths in `#[derive]` attributes.
    pub fn parse_path_allowing_meta(&mut self, mode: PathStyle) -> PResult<'a, ast::Path> {
        let meta_ident = match self.token {
            token::Interpolated(ref nt) => match **nt {
                token::NtMeta(ref meta) => match meta.node {
                    ast::MetaItemKind::Word => Some(ast::Ident::with_empty_ctxt(meta.name)),
                    _ => None,
                },
                _ => None,
            },
            _ => None,
        };
        if let Some(ident) = meta_ident {
            self.bump();
            return Ok(ast::Path::from_ident(self.prev_span, ident));
        }
        self.parse_path(mode)
    }

    /// Examples:
    /// - `a::b<T,U>::c<V,W>`
    /// - `a::b<T,U>::c(V) -> W`
    /// - `a::b<T,U>::c(V)`
    pub fn parse_path_segments_without_colons(&mut self) -> PResult<'a, Vec<PathSegment>> {
        let mut segments = Vec::new();
        loop {
            // First, parse an identifier.
            let ident_span = self.span;
            let identifier = self.parse_path_segment_ident()?;

            if self.check(&token::ModSep) && self.look_ahead(1, |t| *t == token::Lt) {
                self.bump();
                let prev_span = self.prev_span;

                let mut err = self.diagnostic().struct_span_err(prev_span,
                    "unexpected token: `::`");
                err.help(
                    "use `<...>` instead of `::<...>` if you meant to specify type arguments");
                err.emit();
            }

            // Parse types, optionally.
            let parameters = if self.eat_lt() {
                let (lifetimes, types, bindings) = self.parse_generic_args()?;
                self.expect_gt()?;
                ast::AngleBracketedParameterData {
                    lifetimes: lifetimes,
                    types: types,
                    bindings: bindings,
                }.into()
            } else if self.eat(&token::OpenDelim(token::Paren)) {
                let lo = self.prev_span;

                let inputs = self.parse_seq_to_end(
                    &token::CloseDelim(token::Paren),
                    SeqSep::trailing_allowed(token::Comma),
                    |p| p.parse_ty())?;

                let output_ty = if self.eat(&token::RArrow) {
                    Some(self.parse_ty_no_plus()?)
                } else {
                    None
                };

                let hi = self.prev_span;

                Some(P(ast::PathParameters::Parenthesized(ast::ParenthesizedParameterData {
                    span: lo.to(hi),
                    inputs: inputs,
                    output: output_ty,
                })))
            } else {
                None
            };

            // Assemble and push the result.
            segments.push(PathSegment {
                identifier: identifier,
                span: ident_span,
                parameters: parameters
            });

            // Continue only if we see a `::`
            if !self.eat(&token::ModSep) {
                return Ok(segments);
            }
        }
    }

    /// Examples:
    /// - `a::b::<T,U>::c`
    pub fn parse_path_segments_with_colons(&mut self) -> PResult<'a, Vec<PathSegment>> {
        let mut segments = Vec::new();
        loop {
            // First, parse an identifier.
            let ident_span = self.span;
            let identifier = self.parse_path_segment_ident()?;

            // If we do not see a `::`, stop.
            if !self.eat(&token::ModSep) {
                segments.push(PathSegment::from_ident(identifier, ident_span));
                return Ok(segments);
            }

            // Check for a type segment.
            if self.eat_lt() {
                // Consumed `a::b::<`, go look for types
                let (lifetimes, types, bindings) = self.parse_generic_args()?;
                self.expect_gt()?;
                segments.push(PathSegment {
                    identifier: identifier,
                    span: ident_span,
                    parameters: ast::AngleBracketedParameterData {
                        lifetimes: lifetimes,
                        types: types,
                        bindings: bindings,
                    }.into(),
                });

                // Consumed `a::b::<T,U>`, check for `::` before proceeding
                if !self.eat(&token::ModSep) {
                    return Ok(segments);
                }
            } else {
                // Consumed `a::`, go look for `b`
                segments.push(PathSegment::from_ident(identifier, ident_span));
            }
        }
    }

    /// Examples:
    /// - `a::b::c`
    pub fn parse_path_segments_without_types(&mut self)
                                             -> PResult<'a, Vec<PathSegment>> {
        let mut segments = Vec::new();
        loop {
            // First, parse an identifier.
            let ident_span = self.span;
            let identifier = self.parse_path_segment_ident()?;

            // Assemble and push the result.
            segments.push(PathSegment::from_ident(identifier, ident_span));

            // If we do not see a `::` or see `::{`/`::*`, stop.
            if !self.check(&token::ModSep) || self.is_import_coupler() {
                return Ok(segments);
            } else {
                self.bump();
            }
        }
    }

    fn check_lifetime(&mut self) -> bool {
        self.expected_tokens.push(TokenType::Lifetime);
        self.token.is_lifetime()
    }

    /// Parse single lifetime 'a or panic.
    fn expect_lifetime(&mut self) -> Lifetime {
        match self.token {
            token::Lifetime(ident) => {
                let ident_span = self.span;
                self.bump();
                Lifetime { name: ident.name, span: ident_span, id: ast::DUMMY_NODE_ID }
            }
            _ => self.span_bug(self.span, "not a lifetime")
        }
    }

    /// Parse mutability (`mut` or nothing).
    fn parse_mutability(&mut self) -> Mutability {
        if self.eat_keyword(keywords::Mut) {
            Mutability::Mutable
        } else {
            Mutability::Immutable
        }
    }

    pub fn parse_field_name(&mut self) -> PResult<'a, Ident> {
        if let token::Literal(token::Integer(name), None) = self.token {
            self.bump();
            Ok(Ident::with_empty_ctxt(name))
        } else {
            self.parse_ident()
        }
    }

    /// Parse ident (COLON expr)?
    pub fn parse_field(&mut self) -> PResult<'a, Field> {
        let attrs = self.parse_outer_attributes()?;
        let lo = self.span;
        let hi;

        // Check if a colon exists one ahead. This means we're parsing a fieldname.
        let (fieldname, expr, is_shorthand) = if self.look_ahead(1, |t| t == &token::Colon) {
            let fieldname = self.parse_field_name()?;
            self.bump();
            hi = self.prev_span;
            (fieldname, self.parse_expr()?, false)
        } else {
            let fieldname = self.parse_ident()?;
            hi = self.prev_span;

            // Mimic `x: x` for the `x` field shorthand.
            let path = ast::Path::from_ident(lo.to(hi), fieldname);
            (fieldname, self.mk_expr(lo.to(hi), ExprKind::Path(None, path), ThinVec::new()), true)
        };
        Ok(ast::Field {
            ident: respan(lo.to(hi), fieldname),
            span: lo.to(expr.span),
            expr: expr,
            is_shorthand: is_shorthand,
            attrs: attrs.into(),
        })
    }

    pub fn mk_expr(&mut self, span: Span, node: ExprKind, attrs: ThinVec<Attribute>) -> P<Expr> {
        P(Expr {
            id: ast::DUMMY_NODE_ID,
            node: node,
            span: span,
            attrs: attrs.into(),
        })
    }

    pub fn mk_unary(&mut self, unop: ast::UnOp, expr: P<Expr>) -> ast::ExprKind {
        ExprKind::Unary(unop, expr)
    }

    pub fn mk_binary(&mut self, binop: ast::BinOp, lhs: P<Expr>, rhs: P<Expr>) -> ast::ExprKind {
        ExprKind::Binary(binop, lhs, rhs)
    }

    pub fn mk_call(&mut self, f: P<Expr>, args: Vec<P<Expr>>) -> ast::ExprKind {
        ExprKind::Call(f, args)
    }

    fn mk_method_call(&mut self,
                      ident: ast::SpannedIdent,
                      tps: Vec<P<Ty>>,
                      args: Vec<P<Expr>>)
                      -> ast::ExprKind {
        ExprKind::MethodCall(ident, tps, args)
    }

    pub fn mk_index(&mut self, expr: P<Expr>, idx: P<Expr>) -> ast::ExprKind {
        ExprKind::Index(expr, idx)
    }

    pub fn mk_range(&mut self,
                    start: Option<P<Expr>>,
                    end: Option<P<Expr>>,
                    limits: RangeLimits)
                    -> PResult<'a, ast::ExprKind> {
        if end.is_none() && limits == RangeLimits::Closed {
            Err(self.span_fatal_err(self.span, Error::InclusiveRangeWithNoEnd))
        } else {
            Ok(ExprKind::Range(start, end, limits))
        }
    }

    pub fn mk_field(&mut self, expr: P<Expr>, ident: ast::SpannedIdent) -> ast::ExprKind {
        ExprKind::Field(expr, ident)
    }

    pub fn mk_tup_field(&mut self, expr: P<Expr>, idx: codemap::Spanned<usize>) -> ast::ExprKind {
        ExprKind::TupField(expr, idx)
    }

    pub fn mk_assign_op(&mut self, binop: ast::BinOp,
                        lhs: P<Expr>, rhs: P<Expr>) -> ast::ExprKind {
        ExprKind::AssignOp(binop, lhs, rhs)
    }

    pub fn mk_mac_expr(&mut self, span: Span, m: Mac_, attrs: ThinVec<Attribute>) -> P<Expr> {
        P(Expr {
            id: ast::DUMMY_NODE_ID,
            node: ExprKind::Mac(codemap::Spanned {node: m, span: span}),
            span: span,
            attrs: attrs,
        })
    }

    pub fn mk_lit_u32(&mut self, i: u32, attrs: ThinVec<Attribute>) -> P<Expr> {
        let span = &self.span;
        let lv_lit = P(codemap::Spanned {
            node: LitKind::Int(i as u128, ast::LitIntType::Unsigned(UintTy::U32)),
            span: *span
        });

        P(Expr {
            id: ast::DUMMY_NODE_ID,
            node: ExprKind::Lit(lv_lit),
            span: *span,
            attrs: attrs,
        })
    }

    fn expect_delimited_token_tree(&mut self) -> PResult<'a, (token::DelimToken, ThinTokenStream)> {
        match self.token {
            token::OpenDelim(delim) => match self.parse_token_tree() {
                TokenTree::Delimited(_, delimited) => Ok((delim, delimited.stream().into())),
                _ => unreachable!(),
            },
            _ => Err(self.fatal("expected open delimiter")),
        }
    }

    /// At the bottom (top?) of the precedence hierarchy,
    /// parse things like parenthesized exprs,
    /// macros, return, etc.
    ///
    /// NB: This does not parse outer attributes,
    ///     and is private because it only works
    ///     correctly if called from parse_dot_or_call_expr().
    fn parse_bottom_expr(&mut self) -> PResult<'a, P<Expr>> {
        maybe_whole_expr!(self);

        // Outer attributes are already parsed and will be
        // added to the return value after the fact.
        //
        // Therefore, prevent sub-parser from parsing
        // attributes by giving them a empty "already parsed" list.
        let mut attrs = ThinVec::new();

        let lo = self.span;
        let mut hi = self.span;

        let ex: ExprKind;

        // Note: when adding new syntax here, don't forget to adjust Token::can_begin_expr().
        match self.token {
            token::OpenDelim(token::Paren) => {
                self.bump();

                attrs.extend(self.parse_inner_attributes()?);

                // (e) is parenthesized e
                // (e,) is a tuple with only one field, e
                let mut es = vec![];
                let mut trailing_comma = false;
                while self.token != token::CloseDelim(token::Paren) {
                    es.push(self.parse_expr()?);
                    self.expect_one_of(&[], &[token::Comma, token::CloseDelim(token::Paren)])?;
                    if self.check(&token::Comma) {
                        trailing_comma = true;

                        self.bump();
                    } else {
                        trailing_comma = false;
                        break;
                    }
                }
                self.bump();

                hi = self.prev_span;
                let span = lo.to(hi);
                return if es.len() == 1 && !trailing_comma {
                    Ok(self.mk_expr(span, ExprKind::Paren(es.into_iter().nth(0).unwrap()), attrs))
                } else {
                    Ok(self.mk_expr(span, ExprKind::Tup(es), attrs))
                }
            },
            token::OpenDelim(token::Brace) => {
                return self.parse_block_expr(lo, BlockCheckMode::Default, attrs);
            },
            token::BinOp(token::Or) |  token::OrOr => {
                let lo = self.span;
                return self.parse_lambda_expr(lo, CaptureBy::Ref, attrs);
            },
            token::OpenDelim(token::Bracket) => {
                self.bump();

                attrs.extend(self.parse_inner_attributes()?);

                if self.check(&token::CloseDelim(token::Bracket)) {
                    // Empty vector.
                    self.bump();
                    ex = ExprKind::Array(Vec::new());
                } else {
                    // Nonempty vector.
                    let first_expr = self.parse_expr()?;
                    if self.check(&token::Semi) {
                        // Repeating array syntax: [ 0; 512 ]
                        self.bump();
                        let count = self.parse_expr()?;
                        self.expect(&token::CloseDelim(token::Bracket))?;
                        ex = ExprKind::Repeat(first_expr, count);
                    } else if self.check(&token::Comma) {
                        // Vector with two or more elements.
                        self.bump();
                        let remaining_exprs = self.parse_seq_to_end(
                            &token::CloseDelim(token::Bracket),
                            SeqSep::trailing_allowed(token::Comma),
                            |p| Ok(p.parse_expr()?)
                        )?;
                        let mut exprs = vec![first_expr];
                        exprs.extend(remaining_exprs);
                        ex = ExprKind::Array(exprs);
                    } else {
                        // Vector with one element.
                        self.expect(&token::CloseDelim(token::Bracket))?;
                        ex = ExprKind::Array(vec![first_expr]);
                    }
                }
                hi = self.prev_span;
            }
            _ => {
                if self.eat_lt() {
                    let (qself, path) =
                        self.parse_qualified_path(PathStyle::Expr)?;
                    hi = path.span;
                    return Ok(self.mk_expr(lo.to(hi), ExprKind::Path(Some(qself), path), attrs));
                }
                if self.eat_keyword(keywords::Move) {
                    let lo = self.prev_span;
                    return self.parse_lambda_expr(lo, CaptureBy::Value, attrs);
                }
                if self.eat_keyword(keywords::If) {
                    return self.parse_if_expr(attrs);
                }
                if self.eat_keyword(keywords::For) {
                    let lo = self.prev_span;
                    return self.parse_for_expr(None, lo, attrs);
                }
                if self.eat_keyword(keywords::While) {
                    let lo = self.prev_span;
                    return self.parse_while_expr(None, lo, attrs);
                }
                if self.token.is_lifetime() {
                    let label = Spanned { node: self.get_label(),
                                          span: self.span };
                    let lo = self.span;
                    self.bump();
                    self.expect(&token::Colon)?;
                    if self.eat_keyword(keywords::While) {
                        return self.parse_while_expr(Some(label), lo, attrs)
                    }
                    if self.eat_keyword(keywords::For) {
                        return self.parse_for_expr(Some(label), lo, attrs)
                    }
                    if self.eat_keyword(keywords::Loop) {
                        return self.parse_loop_expr(Some(label), lo, attrs)
                    }
                    return Err(self.fatal("expected `while`, `for`, or `loop` after a label"))
                }
                if self.eat_keyword(keywords::Loop) {
                    let lo = self.prev_span;
                    return self.parse_loop_expr(None, lo, attrs);
                }
                if self.eat_keyword(keywords::Continue) {
                    let ex = if self.token.is_lifetime() {
                        let ex = ExprKind::Continue(Some(Spanned{
                            node: self.get_label(),
                            span: self.span
                        }));
                        self.bump();
                        ex
                    } else {
                        ExprKind::Continue(None)
                    };
                    let hi = self.prev_span;
                    return Ok(self.mk_expr(lo.to(hi), ex, attrs));
                }
                if self.eat_keyword(keywords::Match) {
                    return self.parse_match_expr(attrs);
                }
                if self.eat_keyword(keywords::Unsafe) {
                    return self.parse_block_expr(
                        lo,
                        BlockCheckMode::Unsafe(ast::UserProvided),
                        attrs);
                }
                if self.is_catch_expr() {
                    assert!(self.eat_keyword(keywords::Do));
                    assert!(self.eat_keyword(keywords::Catch));
                    let lo = self.prev_span;
                    return self.parse_catch_expr(lo, attrs);
                }
                if self.eat_keyword(keywords::Return) {
                    if self.token.can_begin_expr() {
                        let e = self.parse_expr()?;
                        hi = e.span;
                        ex = ExprKind::Ret(Some(e));
                    } else {
                        ex = ExprKind::Ret(None);
                    }
                } else if self.eat_keyword(keywords::Break) {
                    let lt = if self.token.is_lifetime() {
                        let spanned_lt = Spanned {
                            node: self.get_label(),
                            span: self.span
                        };
                        self.bump();
                        Some(spanned_lt)
                    } else {
                        None
                    };
                    let e = if self.token.can_begin_expr()
                               && !(self.token == token::OpenDelim(token::Brace)
                                    && self.restrictions.contains(
                                           Restrictions::RESTRICTION_NO_STRUCT_LITERAL)) {
                        Some(self.parse_expr()?)
                    } else {
                        None
                    };
                    ex = ExprKind::Break(lt, e);
                    hi = self.prev_span;
                } else if self.token.is_keyword(keywords::Let) {
                    // Catch this syntax error here, instead of in `check_strict_keywords`, so
                    // that we can explicitly mention that let is not to be used as an expression
                    let mut db = self.fatal("expected expression, found statement (`let`)");
                    db.note("variable declaration using `let` is a statement");
                    return Err(db);
                } else if self.token.is_path_start() {
                    let pth = self.parse_path(PathStyle::Expr)?;

                    // `!`, as an operator, is prefix, so we know this isn't that
                    if self.eat(&token::Not) {
                        // MACRO INVOCATION expression
                        let (_, tts) = self.expect_delimited_token_tree()?;
                        let hi = self.prev_span;
                        return Ok(self.mk_mac_expr(lo.to(hi), Mac_ { path: pth, tts: tts }, attrs));
                    }
                    if self.check(&token::OpenDelim(token::Brace)) {
                        // This is a struct literal, unless we're prohibited
                        // from parsing struct literals here.
                        let prohibited = self.restrictions.contains(
                            Restrictions::RESTRICTION_NO_STRUCT_LITERAL
                        );
                        if !prohibited {
                            return self.parse_struct_expr(lo, pth, attrs);
                        }
                    }

                    hi = pth.span;
                    ex = ExprKind::Path(None, pth);
                } else {
                    match self.parse_lit() {
                        Ok(lit) => {
                            hi = lit.span;
                            ex = ExprKind::Lit(P(lit));
                        }
                        Err(mut err) => {
                            self.cancel(&mut err);
                            let msg = format!("expected expression, found {}",
                                              self.this_token_descr());
                            return Err(self.fatal(&msg));
                        }
                    }
                }
            }
        }

        return Ok(self.mk_expr(lo.to(hi), ex, attrs));
    }

    fn parse_struct_expr(&mut self, lo: Span, pth: ast::Path, mut attrs: ThinVec<Attribute>)
                         -> PResult<'a, P<Expr>> {
        self.bump();
        let mut fields = Vec::new();
        let mut base = None;

        attrs.extend(self.parse_inner_attributes()?);

        while self.token != token::CloseDelim(token::Brace) {
            if self.eat(&token::DotDot) {
                match self.parse_expr() {
                    Ok(e) => {
                        base = Some(e);
                    }
                    Err(mut e) => {
                        e.emit();
                        self.recover_stmt();
                    }
                }
                break;
            }

            match self.parse_field() {
                Ok(f) => fields.push(f),
                Err(mut e) => {
                    e.emit();
                    self.recover_stmt();
                    break;
                }
            }

            match self.expect_one_of(&[token::Comma],
                                     &[token::CloseDelim(token::Brace)]) {
                Ok(()) => {}
                Err(mut e) => {
                    e.emit();
                    self.recover_stmt();
                    break;
                }
            }
        }

        let span = lo.to(self.span);
        self.expect(&token::CloseDelim(token::Brace))?;
        return Ok(self.mk_expr(span, ExprKind::Struct(pth, fields, base), attrs));
    }

    fn parse_or_use_outer_attributes(&mut self,
                                     already_parsed_attrs: Option<ThinVec<Attribute>>)
                                     -> PResult<'a, ThinVec<Attribute>> {
        if let Some(attrs) = already_parsed_attrs {
            Ok(attrs)
        } else {
            self.parse_outer_attributes().map(|a| a.into())
        }
    }

    /// Parse a block or unsafe block
    pub fn parse_block_expr(&mut self, lo: Span, blk_mode: BlockCheckMode,
                            outer_attrs: ThinVec<Attribute>)
                            -> PResult<'a, P<Expr>> {

        self.expect(&token::OpenDelim(token::Brace))?;

        let mut attrs = outer_attrs;
        attrs.extend(self.parse_inner_attributes()?);

        let blk = self.parse_block_tail(lo, blk_mode)?;
        return Ok(self.mk_expr(blk.span, ExprKind::Block(blk), attrs));
    }

    /// parse a.b or a(13) or a[4] or just a
    pub fn parse_dot_or_call_expr(&mut self,
                                  already_parsed_attrs: Option<ThinVec<Attribute>>)
                                  -> PResult<'a, P<Expr>> {
        let attrs = self.parse_or_use_outer_attributes(already_parsed_attrs)?;

        let b = self.parse_bottom_expr();
        let (span, b) = self.interpolated_or_expr_span(b)?;
        self.parse_dot_or_call_expr_with(b, span, attrs)
    }

    pub fn parse_dot_or_call_expr_with(&mut self,
                                       e0: P<Expr>,
                                       lo: Span,
                                       mut attrs: ThinVec<Attribute>)
                                       -> PResult<'a, P<Expr>> {
        // Stitch the list of outer attributes onto the return value.
        // A little bit ugly, but the best way given the current code
        // structure
        self.parse_dot_or_call_expr_with_(e0, lo)
        .map(|expr|
            expr.map(|mut expr| {
                attrs.extend::<Vec<_>>(expr.attrs.into());
                expr.attrs = attrs;
                match expr.node {
                    ExprKind::If(..) | ExprKind::IfLet(..) => {
                        if !expr.attrs.is_empty() {
                            // Just point to the first attribute in there...
                            let span = expr.attrs[0].span;

                            self.span_err(span,
                                "attributes are not yet allowed on `if` \
                                expressions");
                        }
                    }
                    _ => {}
                }
                expr
            })
        )
    }

    // Assuming we have just parsed `.foo` (i.e., a dot and an ident), continue
    // parsing into an expression.
    fn parse_dot_suffix(&mut self, ident: Ident, ident_span: Span, self_value: P<Expr>, lo: Span)
                        -> PResult<'a, P<Expr>> {
        let (_, tys, bindings) = if self.eat(&token::ModSep) {
            self.expect_lt()?;
            let args = self.parse_generic_args()?;
            self.expect_gt()?;
            args
        } else {
            (Vec::new(), Vec::new(), Vec::new())
        };

        if !bindings.is_empty() {
            let prev_span = self.prev_span;
            self.span_err(prev_span, "type bindings are only permitted on trait paths");
        }

        Ok(match self.token {
            // expr.f() method call.
            token::OpenDelim(token::Paren) => {
                let mut es = self.parse_unspanned_seq(
                    &token::OpenDelim(token::Paren),
                    &token::CloseDelim(token::Paren),
                    SeqSep::trailing_allowed(token::Comma),
                    |p| Ok(p.parse_expr()?)
                )?;
                let hi = self.prev_span;

                es.insert(0, self_value);
                let id = respan(ident_span.to(ident_span), ident);
                let nd = self.mk_method_call(id, tys, es);
                self.mk_expr(lo.to(hi), nd, ThinVec::new())
            }
            // Field access.
            _ => {
                if !tys.is_empty() {
                    let prev_span = self.prev_span;
                    self.span_err(prev_span,
                                  "field expressions may not \
                                   have type parameters");
                }

                let id = respan(ident_span.to(ident_span), ident);
                let field = self.mk_field(self_value, id);
                self.mk_expr(lo.to(ident_span), field, ThinVec::new())
            }
        })
    }

    fn parse_dot_or_call_expr_with_(&mut self, e0: P<Expr>, lo: Span) -> PResult<'a, P<Expr>> {
        let mut e = e0;
        let mut hi;
        loop {
            // expr?
            while self.eat(&token::Question) {
                let hi = self.prev_span;
                e = self.mk_expr(lo.to(hi), ExprKind::Try(e), ThinVec::new());
            }

            // expr.f
            if self.eat(&token::Dot) {
                match self.token {
                  token::Ident(i) => {
                    let ident_span = self.span;
                    self.bump();
                    e = self.parse_dot_suffix(i, ident_span, e, lo)?;
                  }
                  token::Literal(token::Integer(n), suf) => {
                    let sp = self.span;

                    // A tuple index may not have a suffix
                    self.expect_no_suffix(sp, "tuple index", suf);

                    let dot_span = self.prev_span;
                    hi = self.span;
                    self.bump();

                    let index = n.as_str().parse::<usize>().ok();
                    match index {
                        Some(n) => {
                            let id = respan(dot_span.to(hi), n);
                            let field = self.mk_tup_field(e, id);
                            e = self.mk_expr(lo.to(hi), field, ThinVec::new());
                        }
                        None => {
                            let prev_span = self.prev_span;
                            self.span_err(prev_span, "invalid tuple or tuple struct index");
                        }
                    }
                  }
                  token::Literal(token::Float(n), _suf) => {
                    self.bump();
                    let fstr = n.as_str();
                    let mut err = self.diagnostic().struct_span_err(self.prev_span,
                        &format!("unexpected token: `{}`", n));
                    err.span_label(self.prev_span, &"unexpected token");
                    if fstr.chars().all(|x| "0123456789.".contains(x)) {
                        let float = match fstr.parse::<f64>().ok() {
                            Some(f) => f,
                            None => continue,
                        };
                        let sugg = pprust::to_string(|s| {
                            use print::pprust::PrintState;
                            use print::pp::word;
                            s.popen()?;
                            s.print_expr(&e)?;
                            word(&mut s.s, ".")?;
                            s.print_usize(float.trunc() as usize)?;
                            s.pclose()?;
                            word(&mut s.s, ".")?;
                            word(&mut s.s, fstr.splitn(2, ".").last().unwrap())
                        });
                        err.span_suggestion(
                            lo.to(self.prev_span),
                            "try parenthesizing the first index",
                            sugg);
                    }
                    return Err(err);

                  }
                  _ => {
                    // FIXME Could factor this out into non_fatal_unexpected or something.
                    let actual = self.this_token_to_string();
                    self.span_err(self.span, &format!("unexpected token: `{}`", actual));

                    let dot_span = self.prev_span;
                    e = self.parse_dot_suffix(keywords::Invalid.ident(), dot_span, e, lo)?;
                  }
                }
                continue;
            }
            if self.expr_is_complete(&e) { break; }
            match self.token {
              // expr(...)
              token::OpenDelim(token::Paren) => {
                let es = self.parse_unspanned_seq(
                    &token::OpenDelim(token::Paren),
                    &token::CloseDelim(token::Paren),
                    SeqSep::trailing_allowed(token::Comma),
                    |p| Ok(p.parse_expr()?)
                )?;
                hi = self.prev_span;

                let nd = self.mk_call(e, es);
                e = self.mk_expr(lo.to(hi), nd, ThinVec::new());
              }

              // expr[...]
              // Could be either an index expression or a slicing expression.
              token::OpenDelim(token::Bracket) => {
                self.bump();
                let ix = self.parse_expr()?;
                hi = self.span;
                self.expect(&token::CloseDelim(token::Bracket))?;
                let index = self.mk_index(e, ix);
                e = self.mk_expr(lo.to(hi), index, ThinVec::new())
              }
              _ => return Ok(e)
            }
        }
        return Ok(e);
    }

    pub fn process_potential_macro_variable(&mut self) {
        let ident = match self.token {
            token::SubstNt(name) => {
                self.fatal(&format!("unknown macro variable `{}`", name)).emit();
                return
            }
            token::Interpolated(ref nt) => {
                self.meta_var_span = Some(self.span);
                match **nt {
                    token::NtIdent(ident) => ident,
                    _ => return,
                }
            }
            _ => return,
        };
        self.token = token::Ident(ident.node);
        self.span = ident.span;
    }

    /// parse a single token tree from the input.
    pub fn parse_token_tree(&mut self) -> TokenTree {
        match self.token {
            token::OpenDelim(..) => {
                let frame = mem::replace(&mut self.token_cursor.frame,
                                         self.token_cursor.stack.pop().unwrap());
                self.span = frame.span;
                self.bump();
                TokenTree::Delimited(frame.span, Delimited {
                    delim: frame.delim,
                    tts: frame.tree_cursor.original_stream().into(),
                })
            },
            token::CloseDelim(_) | token::Eof => unreachable!(),
            _ => {
                let (token, span) = (mem::replace(&mut self.token, token::Underscore), self.span);
                self.bump();
                TokenTree::Token(span, token)
            }
        }
    }

    // parse a stream of tokens into a list of TokenTree's,
    // up to EOF.
    pub fn parse_all_token_trees(&mut self) -> PResult<'a, Vec<TokenTree>> {
        let mut tts = Vec::new();
        while self.token != token::Eof {
            tts.push(self.parse_token_tree());
        }
        Ok(tts)
    }

    pub fn parse_tokens(&mut self) -> TokenStream {
        let mut result = Vec::new();
        loop {
            match self.token {
                token::Eof | token::CloseDelim(..) => break,
                _ => result.push(self.parse_token_tree().into()),
            }
        }
        TokenStream::concat(result)
    }

    /// Parse a prefix-unary-operator expr
    pub fn parse_prefix_expr(&mut self,
                             already_parsed_attrs: Option<ThinVec<Attribute>>)
                             -> PResult<'a, P<Expr>> {
        let attrs = self.parse_or_use_outer_attributes(already_parsed_attrs)?;
        let lo = self.span;
        // Note: when adding new unary operators, don't forget to adjust Token::can_begin_expr()
        let (hi, ex) = match self.token {
            token::Not => {
                self.bump();
                let e = self.parse_prefix_expr(None);
                let (span, e) = self.interpolated_or_expr_span(e)?;
                (span, self.mk_unary(UnOp::Not, e))
            }
            // Suggest `!` for bitwise negation when encountering a `~`
            token::Tilde => {
                self.bump();
                let e = self.parse_prefix_expr(None);
                let (span, e) = self.interpolated_or_expr_span(e)?;
                let span_of_tilde = lo;
                let mut err = self.diagnostic().struct_span_err(span_of_tilde,
                        "`~` can not be used as an unary operator");
                err.span_label(span_of_tilde, &"did you mean `!`?");
                err.help("use `!` instead of `~` if you meant to perform bitwise negation");
                err.emit();
                (span, self.mk_unary(UnOp::Not, e))
            }
            token::BinOp(token::Minus) => {
                self.bump();
                let e = self.parse_prefix_expr(None);
                let (span, e) = self.interpolated_or_expr_span(e)?;
                (span, self.mk_unary(UnOp::Neg, e))
            }
            token::BinOp(token::Star) => {
                self.bump();
                let e = self.parse_prefix_expr(None);
                let (span, e) = self.interpolated_or_expr_span(e)?;
                (span, self.mk_unary(UnOp::Deref, e))
            }
            token::BinOp(token::And) | token::AndAnd => {
                self.expect_and()?;
                let m = self.parse_mutability();
                let e = self.parse_prefix_expr(None);
                let (span, e) = self.interpolated_or_expr_span(e)?;
                (span, ExprKind::AddrOf(m, e))
            }
            token::Ident(..) if self.token.is_keyword(keywords::In) => {
                self.bump();
                let place = self.parse_expr_res(
                    Restrictions::RESTRICTION_NO_STRUCT_LITERAL,
                    None,
                )?;
                let blk = self.parse_block()?;
                let span = blk.span;
                let blk_expr = self.mk_expr(span, ExprKind::Block(blk), ThinVec::new());
                (span, ExprKind::InPlace(place, blk_expr))
            }
            token::Ident(..) if self.token.is_keyword(keywords::Box) => {
                self.bump();
                let e = self.parse_prefix_expr(None);
                let (span, e) = self.interpolated_or_expr_span(e)?;
                (span, ExprKind::Box(e))
            }
            _ => return self.parse_dot_or_call_expr(Some(attrs))
        };
        return Ok(self.mk_expr(lo.to(hi), ex, attrs));
    }

    /// Parse an associative expression
    ///
    /// This parses an expression accounting for associativity and precedence of the operators in
    /// the expression.
    pub fn parse_assoc_expr(&mut self,
                            already_parsed_attrs: Option<ThinVec<Attribute>>)
                            -> PResult<'a, P<Expr>> {
        self.parse_assoc_expr_with(0, already_parsed_attrs.into())
    }

    /// Parse an associative expression with operators of at least `min_prec` precedence
    pub fn parse_assoc_expr_with(&mut self,
                                 min_prec: usize,
                                 lhs: LhsExpr)
                                 -> PResult<'a, P<Expr>> {
        let mut lhs = if let LhsExpr::AlreadyParsed(expr) = lhs {
            expr
        } else {
            let attrs = match lhs {
                LhsExpr::AttributesParsed(attrs) => Some(attrs),
                _ => None,
            };
            if self.token == token::DotDot || self.token == token::DotDotDot {
                return self.parse_prefix_range_expr(attrs);
            } else {
                self.parse_prefix_expr(attrs)?
            }
        };

        if self.expr_is_complete(&lhs) {
            // Semi-statement forms are odd. See https://github.com/rust-lang/rust/issues/29071
            return Ok(lhs);
        }
        self.expected_tokens.push(TokenType::Operator);
        while let Some(op) = AssocOp::from_token(&self.token) {

            let lhs_span = if self.prev_token_kind == PrevTokenKind::Interpolated {
                self.prev_span
            } else {
                lhs.span
            };

            let cur_op_span = self.span;
            let restrictions = if op.is_assign_like() {
                self.restrictions & Restrictions::RESTRICTION_NO_STRUCT_LITERAL
            } else {
                self.restrictions
            };
            if op.precedence() < min_prec {
                break;
            }
            self.bump();
            if op.is_comparison() {
                self.check_no_chained_comparison(&lhs, &op);
            }
            // Special cases:
            if op == AssocOp::As {
                let rhs = self.parse_ty_no_plus()?;
                lhs = self.mk_expr(lhs_span.to(rhs.span), ExprKind::Cast(lhs, rhs), ThinVec::new());
                continue
            } else if op == AssocOp::Colon {
                let rhs = self.parse_ty_no_plus()?;
                lhs = self.mk_expr(lhs_span.to(rhs.span), ExprKind::Type(lhs, rhs), ThinVec::new());
                continue
            } else if op == AssocOp::DotDot || op == AssocOp::DotDotDot {
                // If we didn’t have to handle `x..`/`x...`, it would be pretty easy to
                // generalise it to the Fixity::None code.
                //
                // We have 2 alternatives here: `x..y`/`x...y` and `x..`/`x...` The other
                // two variants are handled with `parse_prefix_range_expr` call above.
                let rhs = if self.is_at_start_of_range_notation_rhs() {
                    Some(self.parse_assoc_expr_with(op.precedence() + 1,
                                                    LhsExpr::NotYetParsed)?)
                } else {
                    None
                };
                let (lhs_span, rhs_span) = (lhs.span, if let Some(ref x) = rhs {
                    x.span
                } else {
                    cur_op_span
                });
                let limits = if op == AssocOp::DotDot {
                    RangeLimits::HalfOpen
                } else {
                    RangeLimits::Closed
                };

                let r = try!(self.mk_range(Some(lhs), rhs, limits));
                lhs = self.mk_expr(lhs_span.to(rhs_span), r, ThinVec::new());
                break
            }

            let rhs = match op.fixity() {
                Fixity::Right => self.with_res(
                    restrictions - Restrictions::RESTRICTION_STMT_EXPR,
                    |this| {
                        this.parse_assoc_expr_with(op.precedence(),
                            LhsExpr::NotYetParsed)
                }),
                Fixity::Left => self.with_res(
                    restrictions - Restrictions::RESTRICTION_STMT_EXPR,
                    |this| {
                        this.parse_assoc_expr_with(op.precedence() + 1,
                            LhsExpr::NotYetParsed)
                }),
                // We currently have no non-associative operators that are not handled above by
                // the special cases. The code is here only for future convenience.
                Fixity::None => self.with_res(
                    restrictions - Restrictions::RESTRICTION_STMT_EXPR,
                    |this| {
                        this.parse_assoc_expr_with(op.precedence() + 1,
                            LhsExpr::NotYetParsed)
                }),
            }?;

            let span = lhs_span.to(rhs.span);
            lhs = match op {
                AssocOp::Add | AssocOp::Subtract | AssocOp::Multiply | AssocOp::Divide |
                AssocOp::Modulus | AssocOp::LAnd | AssocOp::LOr | AssocOp::BitXor |
                AssocOp::BitAnd | AssocOp::BitOr | AssocOp::ShiftLeft | AssocOp::ShiftRight |
                AssocOp::Equal | AssocOp::Less | AssocOp::LessEqual | AssocOp::NotEqual |
                AssocOp::Greater | AssocOp::GreaterEqual => {
                    let ast_op = op.to_ast_binop().unwrap();
                    let binary = self.mk_binary(codemap::respan(cur_op_span, ast_op), lhs, rhs);
                    self.mk_expr(span, binary, ThinVec::new())
                }
                AssocOp::Assign =>
                    self.mk_expr(span, ExprKind::Assign(lhs, rhs), ThinVec::new()),
                AssocOp::Inplace =>
                    self.mk_expr(span, ExprKind::InPlace(lhs, rhs), ThinVec::new()),
                AssocOp::AssignOp(k) => {
                    let aop = match k {
                        token::Plus =>    BinOpKind::Add,
                        token::Minus =>   BinOpKind::Sub,
                        token::Star =>    BinOpKind::Mul,
                        token::Slash =>   BinOpKind::Div,
                        token::Percent => BinOpKind::Rem,
                        token::Caret =>   BinOpKind::BitXor,
                        token::And =>     BinOpKind::BitAnd,
                        token::Or =>      BinOpKind::BitOr,
                        token::Shl =>     BinOpKind::Shl,
                        token::Shr =>     BinOpKind::Shr,
                    };
                    let aopexpr = self.mk_assign_op(codemap::respan(cur_op_span, aop), lhs, rhs);
                    self.mk_expr(span, aopexpr, ThinVec::new())
                }
                AssocOp::As | AssocOp::Colon | AssocOp::DotDot | AssocOp::DotDotDot => {
                    self.bug("As, Colon, DotDot or DotDotDot branch reached")
                }
            };

            if op.fixity() == Fixity::None { break }
        }
        Ok(lhs)
    }

    /// Produce an error if comparison operators are chained (RFC #558).
    /// We only need to check lhs, not rhs, because all comparison ops
    /// have same precedence and are left-associative
    fn check_no_chained_comparison(&mut self, lhs: &Expr, outer_op: &AssocOp) {
        debug_assert!(outer_op.is_comparison());
        match lhs.node {
            ExprKind::Binary(op, _, _) if op.node.is_comparison() => {
                // respan to include both operators
                let op_span = op.span.to(self.span);
                let mut err = self.diagnostic().struct_span_err(op_span,
                    "chained comparison operators require parentheses");
                if op.node == BinOpKind::Lt &&
                    *outer_op == AssocOp::Less ||  // Include `<` to provide this recommendation
                    *outer_op == AssocOp::Greater  // even in a case like the following:
                {                                  //     Foo<Bar<Baz<Qux, ()>>>
                    err.help(
                        "use `::<...>` instead of `<...>` if you meant to specify type arguments");
                }
                err.emit();
            }
            _ => {}
        }
    }

    /// Parse prefix-forms of range notation: `..expr`, `..`, `...expr`
    fn parse_prefix_range_expr(&mut self,
                               already_parsed_attrs: Option<ThinVec<Attribute>>)
                               -> PResult<'a, P<Expr>> {
        debug_assert!(self.token == token::DotDot || self.token == token::DotDotDot);
        let tok = self.token.clone();
        let attrs = self.parse_or_use_outer_attributes(already_parsed_attrs)?;
        let lo = self.span;
        let mut hi = self.span;
        self.bump();
        let opt_end = if self.is_at_start_of_range_notation_rhs() {
            // RHS must be parsed with more associativity than the dots.
            let next_prec = AssocOp::from_token(&tok).unwrap().precedence() + 1;
            Some(self.parse_assoc_expr_with(next_prec,
                                            LhsExpr::NotYetParsed)
                .map(|x|{
                    hi = x.span;
                    x
                })?)
         } else {
            None
        };
        let limits = if tok == token::DotDot {
            RangeLimits::HalfOpen
        } else {
            RangeLimits::Closed
        };

        let r = try!(self.mk_range(None,
                                   opt_end,
                                   limits));
        Ok(self.mk_expr(lo.to(hi), r, attrs))
    }

    fn is_at_start_of_range_notation_rhs(&self) -> bool {
        if self.token.can_begin_expr() {
            // parse `for i in 1.. { }` as infinite loop, not as `for i in (1..{})`.
            if self.token == token::OpenDelim(token::Brace) {
                return !self.restrictions.contains(Restrictions::RESTRICTION_NO_STRUCT_LITERAL);
            }
            true
        } else {
            false
        }
    }

    /// Parse an 'if' or 'if let' expression ('if' token already eaten)
    pub fn parse_if_expr(&mut self, attrs: ThinVec<Attribute>) -> PResult<'a, P<Expr>> {
        if self.check_keyword(keywords::Let) {
            return self.parse_if_let_expr(attrs);
        }
        let lo = self.prev_span;
        let cond = self.parse_expr_res(Restrictions::RESTRICTION_NO_STRUCT_LITERAL, None)?;
        let thn = self.parse_block()?;
        let mut els: Option<P<Expr>> = None;
        let mut hi = thn.span;
        if self.eat_keyword(keywords::Else) {
            let elexpr = self.parse_else_expr()?;
            hi = elexpr.span;
            els = Some(elexpr);
        }
        Ok(self.mk_expr(lo.to(hi), ExprKind::If(cond, thn, els), attrs))
    }

    /// Parse an 'if let' expression ('if' token already eaten)
    pub fn parse_if_let_expr(&mut self, attrs: ThinVec<Attribute>)
                             -> PResult<'a, P<Expr>> {
        let lo = self.prev_span;
        self.expect_keyword(keywords::Let)?;
        let pat = self.parse_pat()?;
        self.expect(&token::Eq)?;
        let expr = self.parse_expr_res(Restrictions::RESTRICTION_NO_STRUCT_LITERAL, None)?;
        let thn = self.parse_block()?;
        let (hi, els) = if self.eat_keyword(keywords::Else) {
            let expr = self.parse_else_expr()?;
            (expr.span, Some(expr))
        } else {
            (thn.span, None)
        };
        Ok(self.mk_expr(lo.to(hi), ExprKind::IfLet(pat, expr, thn, els), attrs))
    }

    // `move |args| expr`
    pub fn parse_lambda_expr(&mut self,
                             lo: Span,
                             capture_clause: CaptureBy,
                             attrs: ThinVec<Attribute>)
                             -> PResult<'a, P<Expr>>
    {
        let decl = self.parse_fn_block_decl()?;
        let decl_hi = self.prev_span;
        let body = match decl.output {
            FunctionRetTy::Default(_) => self.parse_expr()?,
            _ => {
                // If an explicit return type is given, require a
                // block to appear (RFC 968).
                let body_lo = self.span;
                self.parse_block_expr(body_lo, BlockCheckMode::Default, ThinVec::new())?
            }
        };

        Ok(self.mk_expr(
            lo.to(body.span),
            ExprKind::Closure(capture_clause, decl, body, lo.to(decl_hi)),
            attrs))
    }

    // `else` token already eaten
    pub fn parse_else_expr(&mut self) -> PResult<'a, P<Expr>> {
        if self.eat_keyword(keywords::If) {
            return self.parse_if_expr(ThinVec::new());
        } else {
            let blk = self.parse_block()?;
            return Ok(self.mk_expr(blk.span, ExprKind::Block(blk), ThinVec::new()));
        }
    }

    /// Parse a 'for' .. 'in' expression ('for' token already eaten)
    pub fn parse_for_expr(&mut self, opt_ident: Option<ast::SpannedIdent>,
                          span_lo: Span,
                          mut attrs: ThinVec<Attribute>) -> PResult<'a, P<Expr>> {
        // Parse: `for <src_pat> in <src_expr> <src_loop_block>`

        let pat = self.parse_pat()?;
        self.expect_keyword(keywords::In)?;
        let expr = self.parse_expr_res(Restrictions::RESTRICTION_NO_STRUCT_LITERAL, None)?;
        let (iattrs, loop_block) = self.parse_inner_attrs_and_block()?;
        attrs.extend(iattrs);

        let hi = self.prev_span;
        Ok(self.mk_expr(span_lo.to(hi), ExprKind::ForLoop(pat, expr, loop_block, opt_ident), attrs))
    }

    /// Parse a 'while' or 'while let' expression ('while' token already eaten)
    pub fn parse_while_expr(&mut self, opt_ident: Option<ast::SpannedIdent>,
                            span_lo: Span,
                            mut attrs: ThinVec<Attribute>) -> PResult<'a, P<Expr>> {
        if self.token.is_keyword(keywords::Let) {
            return self.parse_while_let_expr(opt_ident, span_lo, attrs);
        }
        let cond = self.parse_expr_res(Restrictions::RESTRICTION_NO_STRUCT_LITERAL, None)?;
        let (iattrs, body) = self.parse_inner_attrs_and_block()?;
        attrs.extend(iattrs);
        let span = span_lo.to(body.span);
        return Ok(self.mk_expr(span, ExprKind::While(cond, body, opt_ident), attrs));
    }

    /// Parse a 'while let' expression ('while' token already eaten)
    pub fn parse_while_let_expr(&mut self, opt_ident: Option<ast::SpannedIdent>,
                                span_lo: Span,
                                mut attrs: ThinVec<Attribute>) -> PResult<'a, P<Expr>> {
        self.expect_keyword(keywords::Let)?;
        let pat = self.parse_pat()?;
        self.expect(&token::Eq)?;
        let expr = self.parse_expr_res(Restrictions::RESTRICTION_NO_STRUCT_LITERAL, None)?;
        let (iattrs, body) = self.parse_inner_attrs_and_block()?;
        attrs.extend(iattrs);
        let span = span_lo.to(body.span);
        return Ok(self.mk_expr(span, ExprKind::WhileLet(pat, expr, body, opt_ident), attrs));
    }

    // parse `loop {...}`, `loop` token already eaten
    pub fn parse_loop_expr(&mut self, opt_ident: Option<ast::SpannedIdent>,
                           span_lo: Span,
                           mut attrs: ThinVec<Attribute>) -> PResult<'a, P<Expr>> {
        let (iattrs, body) = self.parse_inner_attrs_and_block()?;
        attrs.extend(iattrs);
        let span = span_lo.to(body.span);
        Ok(self.mk_expr(span, ExprKind::Loop(body, opt_ident), attrs))
    }

    /// Parse a `do catch {...}` expression (`do catch` token already eaten)
    pub fn parse_catch_expr(&mut self, span_lo: Span, mut attrs: ThinVec<Attribute>)
        -> PResult<'a, P<Expr>>
    {
        let (iattrs, body) = self.parse_inner_attrs_and_block()?;
        attrs.extend(iattrs);
        Ok(self.mk_expr(span_lo.to(body.span), ExprKind::Catch(body), attrs))
    }

    // `match` token already eaten
    fn parse_match_expr(&mut self, mut attrs: ThinVec<Attribute>) -> PResult<'a, P<Expr>> {
        let match_span = self.prev_span;
        let lo = self.prev_span;
        let discriminant = self.parse_expr_res(Restrictions::RESTRICTION_NO_STRUCT_LITERAL,
                                               None)?;
        if let Err(mut e) = self.expect(&token::OpenDelim(token::Brace)) {
            if self.token == token::Token::Semi {
                e.span_note(match_span, "did you mean to remove this `match` keyword?");
            }
            return Err(e)
        }
        attrs.extend(self.parse_inner_attributes()?);

        let mut arms: Vec<Arm> = Vec::new();
        while self.token != token::CloseDelim(token::Brace) {
            match self.parse_arm() {
                Ok(arm) => arms.push(arm),
                Err(mut e) => {
                    // Recover by skipping to the end of the block.
                    e.emit();
                    self.recover_stmt();
                    let span = lo.to(self.span);
                    if self.token == token::CloseDelim(token::Brace) {
                        self.bump();
                    }
                    return Ok(self.mk_expr(span, ExprKind::Match(discriminant, arms), attrs));
                }
            }
        }
        let hi = self.span;
        self.bump();
        return Ok(self.mk_expr(lo.to(hi), ExprKind::Match(discriminant, arms), attrs));
    }

    pub fn parse_arm(&mut self) -> PResult<'a, Arm> {
        maybe_whole!(self, NtArm, |x| x);

        let attrs = self.parse_outer_attributes()?;
        let pats = self.parse_pats()?;
        let mut guard = None;
        if self.eat_keyword(keywords::If) {
            guard = Some(self.parse_expr()?);
        }
        self.expect(&token::FatArrow)?;
        let expr = self.parse_expr_res(Restrictions::RESTRICTION_STMT_EXPR, None)?;

        let require_comma =
            !classify::expr_is_simple_block(&expr)
            && self.token != token::CloseDelim(token::Brace);

        if require_comma {
            self.expect_one_of(&[token::Comma], &[token::CloseDelim(token::Brace)])?;
        } else {
            self.eat(&token::Comma);
        }

        Ok(ast::Arm {
            attrs: attrs,
            pats: pats,
            guard: guard,
            body: expr,
        })
    }

    /// Parse an expression
    pub fn parse_expr(&mut self) -> PResult<'a, P<Expr>> {
        self.parse_expr_res(Restrictions::empty(), None)
    }

    /// Evaluate the closure with restrictions in place.
    ///
    /// After the closure is evaluated, restrictions are reset.
    pub fn with_res<F, T>(&mut self, r: Restrictions, f: F) -> T
        where F: FnOnce(&mut Self) -> T
    {
        let old = self.restrictions;
        self.restrictions = r;
        let r = f(self);
        self.restrictions = old;
        return r;

    }

    /// Parse an expression, subject to the given restrictions
    pub fn parse_expr_res(&mut self, r: Restrictions,
                          already_parsed_attrs: Option<ThinVec<Attribute>>)
                          -> PResult<'a, P<Expr>> {
        self.with_res(r, |this| this.parse_assoc_expr(already_parsed_attrs))
    }

    /// Parse the RHS of a local variable declaration (e.g. '= 14;')
    fn parse_initializer(&mut self) -> PResult<'a, Option<P<Expr>>> {
        if self.check(&token::Eq) {
            self.bump();
            Ok(Some(self.parse_expr()?))
        } else {
            Ok(None)
        }
    }

    /// Parse patterns, separated by '|' s
    fn parse_pats(&mut self) -> PResult<'a, Vec<P<Pat>>> {
        let mut pats = Vec::new();
        loop {
            pats.push(self.parse_pat()?);
            if self.check(&token::BinOp(token::Or)) { self.bump();}
            else { return Ok(pats); }
        };
    }

    fn parse_pat_tuple_elements(&mut self, unary_needs_comma: bool)
                                -> PResult<'a, (Vec<P<Pat>>, Option<usize>)> {
        let mut fields = vec![];
        let mut ddpos = None;

        while !self.check(&token::CloseDelim(token::Paren)) {
            if ddpos.is_none() && self.eat(&token::DotDot) {
                ddpos = Some(fields.len());
                if self.eat(&token::Comma) {
                    // `..` needs to be followed by `)` or `, pat`, `..,)` is disallowed.
                    fields.push(self.parse_pat()?);
                }
            } else if ddpos.is_some() && self.eat(&token::DotDot) {
                // Emit a friendly error, ignore `..` and continue parsing
                self.span_err(self.prev_span, "`..` can only be used once per \
                                               tuple or tuple struct pattern");
            } else {
                fields.push(self.parse_pat()?);
            }

            if !self.check(&token::CloseDelim(token::Paren)) ||
                    (unary_needs_comma && fields.len() == 1 && ddpos.is_none()) {
                self.expect(&token::Comma)?;
            }
        }

        Ok((fields, ddpos))
    }

    fn parse_pat_vec_elements(
        &mut self,
    ) -> PResult<'a, (Vec<P<Pat>>, Option<P<Pat>>, Vec<P<Pat>>)> {
        let mut before = Vec::new();
        let mut slice = None;
        let mut after = Vec::new();
        let mut first = true;
        let mut before_slice = true;

        while self.token != token::CloseDelim(token::Bracket) {
            if first {
                first = false;
            } else {
                self.expect(&token::Comma)?;

                if self.token == token::CloseDelim(token::Bracket)
                        && (before_slice || !after.is_empty()) {
                    break
                }
            }

            if before_slice {
                if self.eat(&token::DotDot) {

                    if self.check(&token::Comma) ||
                            self.check(&token::CloseDelim(token::Bracket)) {
                        slice = Some(P(ast::Pat {
                            id: ast::DUMMY_NODE_ID,
                            node: PatKind::Wild,
                            span: self.span,
                        }));
                        before_slice = false;
                    }
                    continue
                }
            }

            let subpat = self.parse_pat()?;
            if before_slice && self.eat(&token::DotDot) {
                slice = Some(subpat);
                before_slice = false;
            } else if before_slice {
                before.push(subpat);
            } else {
                after.push(subpat);
            }
        }

        Ok((before, slice, after))
    }

    /// Parse the fields of a struct-like pattern
    fn parse_pat_fields(&mut self) -> PResult<'a, (Vec<codemap::Spanned<ast::FieldPat>>, bool)> {
        let mut fields = Vec::new();
        let mut etc = false;
        let mut first = true;
        while self.token != token::CloseDelim(token::Brace) {
            if first {
                first = false;
            } else {
                self.expect(&token::Comma)?;
                // accept trailing commas
                if self.check(&token::CloseDelim(token::Brace)) { break }
            }

            let attrs = self.parse_outer_attributes()?;
            let lo = self.span;
            let hi;

            if self.check(&token::DotDot) {
                self.bump();
                if self.token != token::CloseDelim(token::Brace) {
                    let token_str = self.this_token_to_string();
                    return Err(self.fatal(&format!("expected `{}`, found `{}`", "}",
                                       token_str)))
                }
                etc = true;
                break;
            }

            // Check if a colon exists one ahead. This means we're parsing a fieldname.
            let (subpat, fieldname, is_shorthand) = if self.look_ahead(1, |t| t == &token::Colon) {
                // Parsing a pattern of the form "fieldname: pat"
                let fieldname = self.parse_field_name()?;
                self.bump();
                let pat = self.parse_pat()?;
                hi = pat.span;
                (pat, fieldname, false)
            } else {
                // Parsing a pattern of the form "(box) (ref) (mut) fieldname"
                let is_box = self.eat_keyword(keywords::Box);
                let boxed_span = self.span;
                let is_ref = self.eat_keyword(keywords::Ref);
                let is_mut = self.eat_keyword(keywords::Mut);
                let fieldname = self.parse_ident()?;
                hi = self.prev_span;

                let bind_type = match (is_ref, is_mut) {
                    (true, true) => BindingMode::ByRef(Mutability::Mutable),
                    (true, false) => BindingMode::ByRef(Mutability::Immutable),
                    (false, true) => BindingMode::ByValue(Mutability::Mutable),
                    (false, false) => BindingMode::ByValue(Mutability::Immutable),
                };
                let fieldpath = codemap::Spanned{span:self.prev_span, node:fieldname};
                let fieldpat = P(ast::Pat{
                    id: ast::DUMMY_NODE_ID,
                    node: PatKind::Ident(bind_type, fieldpath, None),
                    span: boxed_span.to(hi),
                });

                let subpat = if is_box {
                    P(ast::Pat{
                        id: ast::DUMMY_NODE_ID,
                        node: PatKind::Box(fieldpat),
                        span: lo.to(hi),
                    })
                } else {
                    fieldpat
                };
                (subpat, fieldname, true)
            };

            fields.push(codemap::Spanned { span: lo.to(hi),
                                           node: ast::FieldPat {
                                               ident: fieldname,
                                               pat: subpat,
                                               is_shorthand: is_shorthand,
                                               attrs: attrs.into(),
                                           }
            });
        }
        return Ok((fields, etc));
    }

    fn parse_pat_range_end(&mut self) -> PResult<'a, P<Expr>> {
        if self.token.is_path_start() {
            let lo = self.span;
            let (qself, path) = if self.eat_lt() {
                // Parse a qualified path
                let (qself, path) =
                    self.parse_qualified_path(PathStyle::Expr)?;
                (Some(qself), path)
            } else {
                // Parse an unqualified path
                (None, self.parse_path(PathStyle::Expr)?)
            };
            let hi = self.prev_span;
            Ok(self.mk_expr(lo.to(hi), ExprKind::Path(qself, path), ThinVec::new()))
        } else {
            self.parse_pat_literal_maybe_minus()
        }
    }

    // helper function to decide whether to parse as ident binding or to try to do
    // something more complex like range patterns
    fn parse_as_ident(&mut self) -> bool {
        self.look_ahead(1, |t| match *t {
            token::OpenDelim(token::Paren) | token::OpenDelim(token::Brace) |
            token::DotDotDot | token::ModSep | token::Not => Some(false),
            // ensure slice patterns [a, b.., c] and [a, b, c..] don't go into the
            // range pattern branch
            token::DotDot => None,
            _ => Some(true),
        }).unwrap_or_else(|| self.look_ahead(2, |t| match *t {
            token::Comma | token::CloseDelim(token::Bracket) => true,
            _ => false,
        }))
    }

    /// Parse a pattern.
    pub fn parse_pat(&mut self) -> PResult<'a, P<Pat>> {
        maybe_whole!(self, NtPat, |x| x);

        let lo = self.span;
        let pat;
        match self.token {
            token::Underscore => {
                // Parse _
                self.bump();
                pat = PatKind::Wild;
            }
            token::BinOp(token::And) | token::AndAnd => {
                // Parse &pat / &mut pat
                self.expect_and()?;
                let mutbl = self.parse_mutability();
                if let token::Lifetime(ident) = self.token {
                    return Err(self.fatal(&format!("unexpected lifetime `{}` in pattern", ident)));
                }
                let subpat = self.parse_pat()?;
                pat = PatKind::Ref(subpat, mutbl);
            }
            token::OpenDelim(token::Paren) => {
                // Parse (pat,pat,pat,...) as tuple pattern
                self.bump();
                let (fields, ddpos) = self.parse_pat_tuple_elements(true)?;
                self.expect(&token::CloseDelim(token::Paren))?;
                pat = PatKind::Tuple(fields, ddpos);
            }
            token::OpenDelim(token::Bracket) => {
                // Parse [pat,pat,...] as slice pattern
                self.bump();
                let (before, slice, after) = self.parse_pat_vec_elements()?;
                self.expect(&token::CloseDelim(token::Bracket))?;
                pat = PatKind::Slice(before, slice, after);
            }
            // At this point, token != _, &, &&, (, [
            _ => if self.eat_keyword(keywords::Mut) {
                // Parse mut ident @ pat
                pat = self.parse_pat_ident(BindingMode::ByValue(Mutability::Mutable))?;
            } else if self.eat_keyword(keywords::Ref) {
                // Parse ref ident @ pat / ref mut ident @ pat
                let mutbl = self.parse_mutability();
                pat = self.parse_pat_ident(BindingMode::ByRef(mutbl))?;
            } else if self.eat_keyword(keywords::Box) {
                // Parse box pat
                let subpat = self.parse_pat()?;
                pat = PatKind::Box(subpat);
            } else if self.token.is_ident() && !self.token.is_any_keyword() &&
                      self.parse_as_ident() {
                // Parse ident @ pat
                // This can give false positives and parse nullary enums,
                // they are dealt with later in resolve
                let binding_mode = BindingMode::ByValue(Mutability::Immutable);
                pat = self.parse_pat_ident(binding_mode)?;
            } else if self.token.is_path_start() {
                // Parse pattern starting with a path
                let (qself, path) = if self.eat_lt() {
                    // Parse a qualified path
                    let (qself, path) = self.parse_qualified_path(PathStyle::Expr)?;
                    (Some(qself), path)
                } else {
                    // Parse an unqualified path
                    (None, self.parse_path(PathStyle::Expr)?)
                };
                match self.token {
                    token::Not if qself.is_none() => {
                        // Parse macro invocation
                        self.bump();
                        let (_, tts) = self.expect_delimited_token_tree()?;
                        let mac = respan(lo.to(self.prev_span), Mac_ { path: path, tts: tts });
                        pat = PatKind::Mac(mac);
                    }
                    token::DotDotDot | token::DotDot => {
                        let end_kind = match self.token {
                            token::DotDot => RangeEnd::Excluded,
                            token::DotDotDot => RangeEnd::Included,
                            _ => panic!("can only parse `..` or `...` for ranges (checked above)"),
                        };
                        // Parse range
                        let span = lo.to(self.prev_span);
                        let begin = self.mk_expr(span, ExprKind::Path(qself, path), ThinVec::new());
                        self.bump();
                        let end = self.parse_pat_range_end()?;
                        pat = PatKind::Range(begin, end, end_kind);
                    }
                    token::OpenDelim(token::Brace) => {
                        if qself.is_some() {
                            return Err(self.fatal("unexpected `{` after qualified path"));
                        }
                        // Parse struct pattern
                        self.bump();
                        let (fields, etc) = self.parse_pat_fields().unwrap_or_else(|mut e| {
                            e.emit();
                            self.recover_stmt();
                            (vec![], false)
                        });
                        self.bump();
                        pat = PatKind::Struct(path, fields, etc);
                    }
                    token::OpenDelim(token::Paren) => {
                        if qself.is_some() {
                            return Err(self.fatal("unexpected `(` after qualified path"));
                        }
                        // Parse tuple struct or enum pattern
                        self.bump();
                        let (fields, ddpos) = self.parse_pat_tuple_elements(false)?;
                        self.expect(&token::CloseDelim(token::Paren))?;
                        pat = PatKind::TupleStruct(path, fields, ddpos)
                    }
                    _ => pat = PatKind::Path(qself, path),
                }
            } else {
                // Try to parse everything else as literal with optional minus
                match self.parse_pat_literal_maybe_minus() {
                    Ok(begin) => {
                        if self.eat(&token::DotDotDot) {
                            let end = self.parse_pat_range_end()?;
                            pat = PatKind::Range(begin, end, RangeEnd::Included);
                        } else if self.eat(&token::DotDot) {
                            let end = self.parse_pat_range_end()?;
                            pat = PatKind::Range(begin, end, RangeEnd::Excluded);
                        } else {
                            pat = PatKind::Lit(begin);
                        }
                    }
                    Err(mut err) => {
                        self.cancel(&mut err);
                        let msg = format!("expected pattern, found {}", self.this_token_descr());
                        return Err(self.fatal(&msg));
                    }
                }
            }
        }

        Ok(P(ast::Pat {
            id: ast::DUMMY_NODE_ID,
            node: pat,
            span: lo.to(self.prev_span),
        }))
    }

    /// Parse ident or ident @ pat
    /// used by the copy foo and ref foo patterns to give a good
    /// error message when parsing mistakes like ref foo(a,b)
    fn parse_pat_ident(&mut self,
                       binding_mode: ast::BindingMode)
                       -> PResult<'a, PatKind> {
        let ident_span = self.span;
        let ident = self.parse_ident()?;
        let name = codemap::Spanned{span: ident_span, node: ident};
        let sub = if self.eat(&token::At) {
            Some(self.parse_pat()?)
        } else {
            None
        };

        // just to be friendly, if they write something like
        //   ref Some(i)
        // we end up here with ( as the current token.  This shortly
        // leads to a parse error.  Note that if there is no explicit
        // binding mode then we do not end up here, because the lookahead
        // will direct us over to parse_enum_variant()
        if self.token == token::OpenDelim(token::Paren) {
            return Err(self.span_fatal(
                self.prev_span,
                "expected identifier, found enum pattern"))
        }

        Ok(PatKind::Ident(binding_mode, name, sub))
    }

    /// Parse a local variable declaration
    fn parse_local(&mut self, attrs: ThinVec<Attribute>) -> PResult<'a, P<Local>> {
        let lo = self.span;
        let pat = self.parse_pat()?;

        let mut ty = None;
        if self.eat(&token::Colon) {
            ty = Some(self.parse_ty()?);
        }
        let init = self.parse_initializer()?;
        Ok(P(ast::Local {
            ty: ty,
            pat: pat,
            init: init,
            id: ast::DUMMY_NODE_ID,
            span: lo.to(self.prev_span),
            attrs: attrs,
        }))
    }

    /// Parse a structure field
    fn parse_name_and_ty(&mut self,
                         lo: Span,
                         vis: Visibility,
                         attrs: Vec<Attribute>)
                         -> PResult<'a, StructField> {
        let name = self.parse_ident()?;
        self.expect(&token::Colon)?;
        let ty = self.parse_ty()?;
        Ok(StructField {
            span: lo.to(self.prev_span),
            ident: Some(name),
            vis: vis,
            id: ast::DUMMY_NODE_ID,
            ty: ty,
            attrs: attrs,
        })
    }

    /// Emit an expected item after attributes error.
    fn expected_item_err(&self, attrs: &[Attribute]) {
        let message = match attrs.last() {
            Some(&Attribute { is_sugared_doc: true, .. }) => "expected item after doc comment",
            _ => "expected item after attributes",
        };

        self.span_err(self.prev_span, message);
    }

    /// Parse a statement. This stops just before trailing semicolons on everything but items.
    /// e.g. a `StmtKind::Semi` parses to a `StmtKind::Expr`, leaving the trailing `;` unconsumed.
    pub fn parse_stmt(&mut self) -> PResult<'a, Option<Stmt>> {
        Ok(self.parse_stmt_(true))
    }

    // Eat tokens until we can be relatively sure we reached the end of the
    // statement. This is something of a best-effort heuristic.
    //
    // We terminate when we find an unmatched `}` (without consuming it).
    fn recover_stmt(&mut self) {
        self.recover_stmt_(SemiColonMode::Ignore, BlockMode::Ignore)
    }

    // If `break_on_semi` is `Break`, then we will stop consuming tokens after
    // finding (and consuming) a `;` outside of `{}` or `[]` (note that this is
    // approximate - it can mean we break too early due to macros, but that
    // shoud only lead to sub-optimal recovery, not inaccurate parsing).
    //
    // If `break_on_block` is `Break`, then we will stop consuming tokens
    // after finding (and consuming) a brace-delimited block.
    fn recover_stmt_(&mut self, break_on_semi: SemiColonMode, break_on_block: BlockMode) {
        let mut brace_depth = 0;
        let mut bracket_depth = 0;
        let mut in_block = false;
        debug!("recover_stmt_ enter loop (semi={:?}, block={:?})",
               break_on_semi, break_on_block);
        loop {
            debug!("recover_stmt_ loop {:?}", self.token);
            match self.token {
                token::OpenDelim(token::DelimToken::Brace) => {
                    brace_depth += 1;
                    self.bump();
                    if break_on_block == BlockMode::Break &&
                       brace_depth == 1 &&
                       bracket_depth == 0 {
                        in_block = true;
                    }
                }
                token::OpenDelim(token::DelimToken::Bracket) => {
                    bracket_depth += 1;
                    self.bump();
                }
                token::CloseDelim(token::DelimToken::Brace) => {
                    if brace_depth == 0 {
                        debug!("recover_stmt_ return - close delim {:?}", self.token);
                        return;
                    }
                    brace_depth -= 1;
                    self.bump();
                    if in_block && bracket_depth == 0 && brace_depth == 0 {
                        debug!("recover_stmt_ return - block end {:?}", self.token);
                        return;
                    }
                }
                token::CloseDelim(token::DelimToken::Bracket) => {
                    bracket_depth -= 1;
                    if bracket_depth < 0 {
                        bracket_depth = 0;
                    }
                    self.bump();
                }
                token::Eof => {
                    debug!("recover_stmt_ return - Eof");
                    return;
                }
                token::Semi => {
                    self.bump();
                    if break_on_semi == SemiColonMode::Break &&
                       brace_depth == 0 &&
                       bracket_depth == 0 {
                        debug!("recover_stmt_ return - Semi");
                        return;
                    }
                }
                _ => {
                    self.bump()
                }
            }
        }
    }

    fn parse_stmt_(&mut self, macro_legacy_warnings: bool) -> Option<Stmt> {
        self.parse_stmt_without_recovery(macro_legacy_warnings).unwrap_or_else(|mut e| {
            e.emit();
            self.recover_stmt_(SemiColonMode::Break, BlockMode::Ignore);
            None
        })
    }

    fn is_catch_expr(&mut self) -> bool {
        self.token.is_keyword(keywords::Do) &&
        self.look_ahead(1, |t| t.is_keyword(keywords::Catch)) &&
        self.look_ahead(2, |t| *t == token::OpenDelim(token::Brace)) &&

        // prevent `while catch {} {}`, `if catch {} {} else {}`, etc.
        !self.restrictions.contains(Restrictions::RESTRICTION_NO_STRUCT_LITERAL)
    }

    fn is_union_item(&self) -> bool {
        self.token.is_keyword(keywords::Union) &&
        self.look_ahead(1, |t| t.is_ident() && !t.is_any_keyword())
    }

    fn eat_macro_def(&mut self, attrs: &[Attribute], vis: &Visibility)
                     -> PResult<'a, Option<P<Item>>> {
        let lo = self.span;
        match self.token {
            token::Ident(ident) if ident.name == "macro_rules" => {
                if self.look_ahead(1, |t| *t == token::Not) {
                    let prev_span = self.prev_span;
                    self.complain_if_pub_macro(vis, prev_span);
                    self.bump();
                    self.bump();
                }
            }
            _ => return Ok(None),
        };

        let id = self.parse_ident()?;
        let (delim, tts) = self.expect_delimited_token_tree()?;
        if delim != token::Brace {
            if !self.eat(&token::Semi) {
                let msg = "macros that expand to items must either be surrounded with braces \
                           or followed by a semicolon";
                self.span_err(self.prev_span, msg);
            }
        }

        let span = lo.to(self.prev_span);
        let kind = ItemKind::MacroDef(tts);
        Ok(Some(self.mk_item(span, id, kind, Visibility::Inherited, attrs.to_owned())))
    }

    fn parse_stmt_without_recovery(&mut self,
                                   macro_legacy_warnings: bool)
                                   -> PResult<'a, Option<Stmt>> {
        maybe_whole!(self, NtStmt, |x| Some(x));

        let attrs = self.parse_outer_attributes()?;
        let lo = self.span;

        Ok(Some(if self.eat_keyword(keywords::Let) {
            Stmt {
                id: ast::DUMMY_NODE_ID,
                node: StmtKind::Local(self.parse_local(attrs.into())?),
                span: lo.to(self.prev_span),
            }
        } else if let Some(macro_def) = self.eat_macro_def(&attrs, &Visibility::Inherited)? {
            Stmt {
                id: ast::DUMMY_NODE_ID,
                node: StmtKind::Item(macro_def),
                span: lo.to(self.prev_span),
            }
        // Starts like a simple path, but not a union item.
        } else if self.token.is_path_start() &&
                  !self.token.is_qpath_start() &&
                  !self.is_union_item() {
            let pth = self.parse_path(PathStyle::Expr)?;

            if !self.eat(&token::Not) {
                let expr = if self.check(&token::OpenDelim(token::Brace)) {
                    self.parse_struct_expr(lo, pth, ThinVec::new())?
                } else {
                    let hi = self.prev_span;
                    self.mk_expr(lo.to(hi), ExprKind::Path(None, pth), ThinVec::new())
                };

                let expr = self.with_res(Restrictions::RESTRICTION_STMT_EXPR, |this| {
                    let expr = this.parse_dot_or_call_expr_with(expr, lo, attrs.into())?;
                    this.parse_assoc_expr_with(0, LhsExpr::AlreadyParsed(expr))
                })?;

                return Ok(Some(Stmt {
                    id: ast::DUMMY_NODE_ID,
                    node: StmtKind::Expr(expr),
                    span: lo.to(self.prev_span),
                }));
            }

            // it's a macro invocation
            let id = match self.token {
                token::OpenDelim(_) => keywords::Invalid.ident(), // no special identifier
                _ => self.parse_ident()?,
            };

            // check that we're pointing at delimiters (need to check
            // again after the `if`, because of `parse_ident`
            // consuming more tokens).
            let delim = match self.token {
                token::OpenDelim(delim) => delim,
                _ => {
                    // we only expect an ident if we didn't parse one
                    // above.
                    let ident_str = if id.name == keywords::Invalid.name() {
                        "identifier, "
                    } else {
                        ""
                    };
                    let tok_str = self.this_token_to_string();
                    return Err(self.fatal(&format!("expected {}`(` or `{{`, found `{}`",
                                       ident_str,
                                       tok_str)))
                },
            };

            let (_, tts) = self.expect_delimited_token_tree()?;
            let hi = self.prev_span;

            let style = if delim == token::Brace {
                MacStmtStyle::Braces
            } else {
                MacStmtStyle::NoBraces
            };

            if id.name == keywords::Invalid.name() {
                let mac = respan(lo.to(hi), Mac_ { path: pth, tts: tts });
                let node = if delim == token::Brace ||
                              self.token == token::Semi || self.token == token::Eof {
                    StmtKind::Mac(P((mac, style, attrs.into())))
                }
                // We used to incorrectly stop parsing macro-expanded statements here.
                // If the next token will be an error anyway but could have parsed with the
                // earlier behavior, stop parsing here and emit a warning to avoid breakage.
                else if macro_legacy_warnings && self.token.can_begin_expr() && match self.token {
                    // These can continue an expression, so we can't stop parsing and warn.
                    token::OpenDelim(token::Paren) | token::OpenDelim(token::Bracket) |
                    token::BinOp(token::Minus) | token::BinOp(token::Star) |
                    token::BinOp(token::And) | token::BinOp(token::Or) |
                    token::AndAnd | token::OrOr |
                    token::DotDot | token::DotDotDot => false,
                    _ => true,
                } {
                    self.warn_missing_semicolon();
                    StmtKind::Mac(P((mac, style, attrs.into())))
                } else {
                    let e = self.mk_mac_expr(lo.to(hi), mac.node, ThinVec::new());
                    let e = self.parse_dot_or_call_expr_with(e, lo, attrs.into())?;
                    let e = self.parse_assoc_expr_with(0, LhsExpr::AlreadyParsed(e))?;
                    StmtKind::Expr(e)
                };
                Stmt {
                    id: ast::DUMMY_NODE_ID,
                    span: lo.to(hi),
                    node: node,
                }
            } else {
                // if it has a special ident, it's definitely an item
                //
                // Require a semicolon or braces.
                if style != MacStmtStyle::Braces {
                    if !self.eat(&token::Semi) {
                        self.span_err(self.prev_span,
                                      "macros that expand to items must \
                                       either be surrounded with braces or \
                                       followed by a semicolon");
                    }
                }
                let span = lo.to(hi);
                Stmt {
                    id: ast::DUMMY_NODE_ID,
                    span: span,
                    node: StmtKind::Item({
                        self.mk_item(
                            span, id /*id is good here*/,
                            ItemKind::Mac(respan(span, Mac_ { path: pth, tts: tts })),
                            Visibility::Inherited,
                            attrs)
                    }),
                }
            }
        } else {
            // FIXME: Bad copy of attrs
            let old_directory_ownership =
                mem::replace(&mut self.directory.ownership, DirectoryOwnership::UnownedViaBlock);
            let item = self.parse_item_(attrs.clone(), false, true)?;
            self.directory.ownership = old_directory_ownership;
            match item {
                Some(i) => Stmt {
                    id: ast::DUMMY_NODE_ID,
                    span: lo.to(i.span),
                    node: StmtKind::Item(i),
                },
                None => {
                    let unused_attrs = |attrs: &[_], s: &mut Self| {
                        if attrs.len() > 0 {
                            if s.prev_token_kind == PrevTokenKind::DocComment {
                                s.span_fatal_err(s.prev_span, Error::UselessDocComment).emit();
                            } else {
                                s.span_err(s.span, "expected statement after outer attribute");
                            }
                        }
                    };

                    // Do not attempt to parse an expression if we're done here.
                    if self.token == token::Semi {
                        unused_attrs(&attrs, self);
                        self.bump();
                        return Ok(None);
                    }

                    if self.token == token::CloseDelim(token::Brace) {
                        unused_attrs(&attrs, self);
                        return Ok(None);
                    }

                    // Remainder are line-expr stmts.
                    let e = self.parse_expr_res(
                        Restrictions::RESTRICTION_STMT_EXPR, Some(attrs.into()))?;
                    Stmt {
                        id: ast::DUMMY_NODE_ID,
                        span: lo.to(e.span),
                        node: StmtKind::Expr(e),
                    }
                }
            }
        }))
    }

    /// Is this expression a successfully-parsed statement?
    fn expr_is_complete(&mut self, e: &Expr) -> bool {
        self.restrictions.contains(Restrictions::RESTRICTION_STMT_EXPR) &&
            !classify::expr_requires_semi_to_be_stmt(e)
    }

    /// Parse a block. No inner attrs are allowed.
    pub fn parse_block(&mut self) -> PResult<'a, P<Block>> {
        maybe_whole!(self, NtBlock, |x| x);

        let lo = self.span;

        if !self.eat(&token::OpenDelim(token::Brace)) {
            let sp = self.span;
            let tok = self.this_token_to_string();
            let mut e = self.span_fatal(sp, &format!("expected `{{`, found `{}`", tok));

            // Check to see if the user has written something like
            //
            //    if (cond)
            //      bar;
            //
            // Which is valid in other languages, but not Rust.
            match self.parse_stmt_without_recovery(false) {
                Ok(Some(stmt)) => {
                    let mut stmt_span = stmt.span;
                    // expand the span to include the semicolon, if it exists
                    if self.eat(&token::Semi) {
                        stmt_span.hi = self.prev_span.hi;
                    }
                    let sugg = pprust::to_string(|s| {
                        use print::pprust::{PrintState, INDENT_UNIT};
                        s.ibox(INDENT_UNIT)?;
                        s.bopen()?;
                        s.print_stmt(&stmt)?;
                        s.bclose_maybe_open(stmt.span, INDENT_UNIT, false)
                    });
                    e.span_suggestion(stmt_span, "try placing this code inside a block", sugg);
                }
                Err(mut e) => {
                    self.recover_stmt_(SemiColonMode::Break, BlockMode::Ignore);
                    self.cancel(&mut e);
                }
                _ => ()
            }
            return Err(e);
        }

        self.parse_block_tail(lo, BlockCheckMode::Default)
    }

    /// Parse a block. Inner attrs are allowed.
    fn parse_inner_attrs_and_block(&mut self) -> PResult<'a, (Vec<Attribute>, P<Block>)> {
        maybe_whole!(self, NtBlock, |x| (Vec::new(), x));

        let lo = self.span;
        self.expect(&token::OpenDelim(token::Brace))?;
        Ok((self.parse_inner_attributes()?,
            self.parse_block_tail(lo, BlockCheckMode::Default)?))
    }

    /// Parse the rest of a block expression or function body
    /// Precondition: already parsed the '{'.
    fn parse_block_tail(&mut self, lo: Span, s: BlockCheckMode) -> PResult<'a, P<Block>> {
        let mut stmts = vec![];

        while !self.eat(&token::CloseDelim(token::Brace)) {
            if let Some(stmt) = self.parse_full_stmt(false)? {
                stmts.push(stmt);
            } else if self.token == token::Eof {
                break;
            } else {
                // Found only `;` or `}`.
                continue;
            };
        }

        Ok(P(ast::Block {
            stmts: stmts,
            id: ast::DUMMY_NODE_ID,
            rules: s,
            span: lo.to(self.prev_span),
        }))
    }

    /// Parse a statement, including the trailing semicolon.
    pub fn parse_full_stmt(&mut self, macro_legacy_warnings: bool) -> PResult<'a, Option<Stmt>> {
        let mut stmt = match self.parse_stmt_(macro_legacy_warnings) {
            Some(stmt) => stmt,
            None => return Ok(None),
        };

        match stmt.node {
            StmtKind::Expr(ref expr) if self.token != token::Eof => {
                // expression without semicolon
                if classify::expr_requires_semi_to_be_stmt(expr) {
                    // Just check for errors and recover; do not eat semicolon yet.
                    if let Err(mut e) =
                        self.expect_one_of(&[], &[token::Semi, token::CloseDelim(token::Brace)])
                    {
                        e.emit();
                        self.recover_stmt();
                    }
                }
            }
            StmtKind::Local(..) => {
                // We used to incorrectly allow a macro-expanded let statement to lack a semicolon.
                if macro_legacy_warnings && self.token != token::Semi {
                    self.warn_missing_semicolon();
                } else {
                    self.expect_one_of(&[token::Semi], &[])?;
                }
            }
            _ => {}
        }

        if self.eat(&token::Semi) {
            stmt = stmt.add_trailing_semicolon();
        }

        stmt.span.hi = self.prev_span.hi;
        Ok(Some(stmt))
    }

    fn warn_missing_semicolon(&self) {
        self.diagnostic().struct_span_warn(self.span, {
            &format!("expected `;`, found `{}`", self.this_token_to_string())
        }).note({
            "This was erroneously allowed and will become a hard error in a future release"
        }).emit();
    }

    // Parse bounds of a type parameter `BOUND + BOUND + BOUND`, possibly with trailing `+`.
    // BOUND = TY_BOUND | LT_BOUND
    // LT_BOUND = LIFETIME (e.g. `'a`)
    // TY_BOUND = TY_BOUND_NOPAREN | (TY_BOUND_NOPAREN)
    // TY_BOUND_NOPAREN = [?] [for<LT_PARAM_DEFS>] SIMPLE_PATH (e.g. `?for<'a: 'b> m::Trait<'a>`)
    fn parse_ty_param_bounds_common(&mut self, allow_plus: bool) -> PResult<'a, TyParamBounds> {
        let mut bounds = Vec::new();
        loop {
            let is_bound_start = self.check_path() || self.check_lifetime() ||
                                 self.check(&token::Question) ||
                                 self.check_keyword(keywords::For) ||
                                 self.check(&token::OpenDelim(token::Paren));
            if is_bound_start {
                let has_parens = self.eat(&token::OpenDelim(token::Paren));
                let question = if self.eat(&token::Question) { Some(self.prev_span) } else { None };
                if self.token.is_lifetime() {
                    if let Some(question_span) = question {
                        self.span_err(question_span,
                                      "`?` may only modify trait bounds, not lifetime bounds");
                    }
                    bounds.push(RegionTyParamBound(self.expect_lifetime()));
                } else {
                    let lo = self.span;
                    let lifetime_defs = self.parse_late_bound_lifetime_defs()?;
                    let path = self.parse_path(PathStyle::Type)?;
                    let poly_trait = PolyTraitRef::new(lifetime_defs, path, lo.to(self.prev_span));
                    let modifier = if question.is_some() {
                        TraitBoundModifier::Maybe
                    } else {
                        TraitBoundModifier::None
                    };
                    bounds.push(TraitTyParamBound(poly_trait, modifier));
                }
                if has_parens {
                    self.expect(&token::CloseDelim(token::Paren))?;
                    if let Some(&RegionTyParamBound(..)) = bounds.last() {
                        self.span_err(self.prev_span,
                                      "parenthesized lifetime bounds are not supported");
                    }
                }
            } else {
                break
            }

            if !allow_plus || !self.eat(&token::BinOp(token::Plus)) {
                break
            }
        }

        return Ok(bounds);
    }

    fn parse_ty_param_bounds(&mut self) -> PResult<'a, TyParamBounds> {
        self.parse_ty_param_bounds_common(true)
    }

    // Parse bounds of a lifetime parameter `BOUND + BOUND + BOUND`, possibly with trailing `+`.
    // BOUND = LT_BOUND (e.g. `'a`)
    fn parse_lt_param_bounds(&mut self) -> Vec<Lifetime> {
        let mut lifetimes = Vec::new();
        while self.check_lifetime() {
            lifetimes.push(self.expect_lifetime());

            if !self.eat(&token::BinOp(token::Plus)) {
                break
            }
        }
        lifetimes
    }

    /// Matches typaram = IDENT (`?` unbound)? optbounds ( EQ ty )?
    fn parse_ty_param(&mut self, preceding_attrs: Vec<Attribute>) -> PResult<'a, TyParam> {
        let span = self.span;
        let ident = self.parse_ident()?;

        // Parse optional colon and param bounds.
        let bounds = if self.eat(&token::Colon) {
            self.parse_ty_param_bounds()?
        } else {
            Vec::new()
        };

        let default = if self.eat(&token::Eq) {
            Some(self.parse_ty()?)
        } else {
            None
        };

        Ok(TyParam {
            attrs: preceding_attrs.into(),
            ident: ident,
            id: ast::DUMMY_NODE_ID,
            bounds: bounds,
            default: default,
            span: span,
        })
    }

    /// Parses (possibly empty) list of lifetime and type parameters, possibly including
    /// trailing comma and erroneous trailing attributes.
    pub fn parse_generic_params(&mut self) -> PResult<'a, (Vec<LifetimeDef>, Vec<TyParam>)> {
        let mut lifetime_defs = Vec::new();
        let mut ty_params = Vec::new();
        let mut seen_ty_param = false;
        loop {
            let attrs = self.parse_outer_attributes()?;
            if self.check_lifetime() {
                let lifetime = self.expect_lifetime();
                // Parse lifetime parameter.
                let bounds = if self.eat(&token::Colon) {
                    self.parse_lt_param_bounds()
                } else {
                    Vec::new()
                };
                lifetime_defs.push(LifetimeDef {
                    attrs: attrs.into(),
                    lifetime: lifetime,
                    bounds: bounds,
                });
                if seen_ty_param {
                    self.span_err(self.prev_span,
                        "lifetime parameters must be declared prior to type parameters");
                }
            } else if self.check_ident() {
                // Parse type parameter.
                ty_params.push(self.parse_ty_param(attrs)?);
                seen_ty_param = true;
            } else {
                // Check for trailing attributes and stop parsing.
                if !attrs.is_empty() {
                    let param_kind = if seen_ty_param { "type" } else { "lifetime" };
                    self.span_err(attrs[0].span,
                        &format!("trailing attribute after {} parameters", param_kind));
                }
                break
            }

            if !self.eat(&token::Comma) {
                break
            }
        }
        Ok((lifetime_defs, ty_params))
    }

    /// Parse a set of optional generic type parameter declarations. Where
    /// clauses are not parsed here, and must be added later via
    /// `parse_where_clause()`.
    ///
    /// matches generics = ( ) | ( < > ) | ( < typaramseq ( , )? > ) | ( < lifetimes ( , )? > )
    ///                  | ( < lifetimes , typaramseq ( , )? > )
    /// where   typaramseq = ( typaram ) | ( typaram , typaramseq )
    pub fn parse_generics(&mut self) -> PResult<'a, ast::Generics> {
        maybe_whole!(self, NtGenerics, |x| x);

        let span_lo = self.span;
        if self.eat_lt() {
            let (lifetime_defs, ty_params) = self.parse_generic_params()?;
            self.expect_gt()?;
            Ok(ast::Generics {
                lifetimes: lifetime_defs,
                ty_params: ty_params,
                where_clause: WhereClause {
                    id: ast::DUMMY_NODE_ID,
                    predicates: Vec::new(),
                },
                span: span_lo.to(self.prev_span),
            })
        } else {
            Ok(ast::Generics::default())
        }
    }

    /// Parses (possibly empty) list of lifetime and type arguments and associated type bindings,
    /// possibly including trailing comma.
    fn parse_generic_args(&mut self) -> PResult<'a, (Vec<Lifetime>, Vec<P<Ty>>, Vec<TypeBinding>)> {
        let mut lifetimes = Vec::new();
        let mut types = Vec::new();
        let mut bindings = Vec::new();
        let mut seen_type = false;
        let mut seen_binding = false;
        loop {
            if self.check_lifetime() && self.look_ahead(1, |t| t != &token::BinOp(token::Plus)) {
                // Parse lifetime argument.
                lifetimes.push(self.expect_lifetime());
                if seen_type || seen_binding {
                    self.span_err(self.prev_span,
                        "lifetime parameters must be declared prior to type parameters");
                }
            } else if self.check_ident() && self.look_ahead(1, |t| t == &token::Eq) {
                // Parse associated type binding.
                let lo = self.span;
                let ident = self.parse_ident()?;
                self.bump();
                let ty = self.parse_ty()?;
                bindings.push(TypeBinding {
                    id: ast::DUMMY_NODE_ID,
                    ident: ident,
                    ty: ty,
                    span: lo.to(self.prev_span),
                });
                seen_binding = true;
            } else if self.check_type() {
                // Parse type argument.
                types.push(self.parse_ty()?);
                if seen_binding {
                    self.span_err(types[types.len() - 1].span,
                        "type parameters must be declared prior to associated type bindings");
                }
                seen_type = true;
            } else {
                break
            }

            if !self.eat(&token::Comma) {
                break
            }
        }
        Ok((lifetimes, types, bindings))
    }

    /// Parses an optional `where` clause and places it in `generics`.
    ///
    /// ```ignore
    /// where T : Trait<U, V> + 'b, 'a : 'b
    /// ```
    pub fn parse_where_clause(&mut self) -> PResult<'a, WhereClause> {
        maybe_whole!(self, NtWhereClause, |x| x);

        let mut where_clause = WhereClause {
            id: ast::DUMMY_NODE_ID,
            predicates: Vec::new(),
        };

        if !self.eat_keyword(keywords::Where) {
            return Ok(where_clause);
        }

        // This is a temporary future proofing.
        //
        // We are considering adding generics to the `where` keyword as an alternative higher-rank
        // parameter syntax (as in `where<'a>` or `where<T>`. To avoid that being a breaking
        // change, for now we refuse to parse `where < (ident | lifetime) (> | , | :)`.
        if token::Lt == self.token {
            let ident_or_lifetime = self.look_ahead(1, |t| t.is_ident() || t.is_lifetime());
            if ident_or_lifetime {
                let gt_comma_or_colon = self.look_ahead(2, |t| {
                    *t == token::Gt || *t == token::Comma || *t == token::Colon
                });
                if gt_comma_or_colon {
                    self.span_err(self.span, "syntax `where<T>` is reserved for future use");
                }
            }
        }

        loop {
            let lo = self.span;
            if self.check_lifetime() && self.look_ahead(1, |t| t != &token::BinOp(token::Plus)) {
                let lifetime = self.expect_lifetime();
                // Bounds starting with a colon are mandatory, but possibly empty.
                self.expect(&token::Colon)?;
                let bounds = self.parse_lt_param_bounds();
                where_clause.predicates.push(ast::WherePredicate::RegionPredicate(
                    ast::WhereRegionPredicate {
                        span: lo.to(self.prev_span),
                        lifetime: lifetime,
                        bounds: bounds,
                    }
                ));
            } else if self.check_type() {
                // Parse optional `for<'a, 'b>`.
                // This `for` is parsed greedily and applies to the whole predicate,
                // the bounded type can have its own `for` applying only to it.
                // Example 1: for<'a> Trait1<'a>: Trait2<'a /*ok*/>
                // Example 2: (for<'a> Trait1<'a>): Trait2<'a /*not ok*/>
                // Example 3: for<'a> for<'b> Trait1<'a, 'b>: Trait2<'a /*ok*/, 'b /*not ok*/>
                let lifetime_defs = self.parse_late_bound_lifetime_defs()?;

                // Parse type with mandatory colon and (possibly empty) bounds,
                // or with mandatory equality sign and the second type.
                let ty = self.parse_ty()?;
                if self.eat(&token::Colon) {
                    let bounds = self.parse_ty_param_bounds()?;
                    where_clause.predicates.push(ast::WherePredicate::BoundPredicate(
                        ast::WhereBoundPredicate {
                            span: lo.to(self.prev_span),
                            bound_lifetimes: lifetime_defs,
                            bounded_ty: ty,
                            bounds: bounds,
                        }
                    ));
                // FIXME: Decide what should be used here, `=` or `==`.
                } else if self.eat(&token::Eq) || self.eat(&token::EqEq) {
                    let rhs_ty = self.parse_ty()?;
                    where_clause.predicates.push(ast::WherePredicate::EqPredicate(
                        ast::WhereEqPredicate {
                            span: lo.to(self.prev_span),
                            lhs_ty: ty,
                            rhs_ty: rhs_ty,
                            id: ast::DUMMY_NODE_ID,
                        }
                    ));
                } else {
                    return self.unexpected();
                }
            } else {
                break
            }

            if !self.eat(&token::Comma) {
                break
            }
        }

        Ok(where_clause)
    }

    fn parse_fn_args(&mut self, named_args: bool, allow_variadic: bool)
                     -> PResult<'a, (Vec<Arg> , bool)> {
        let sp = self.span;
        let mut variadic = false;
        let args: Vec<Option<Arg>> =
            self.parse_unspanned_seq(
                &token::OpenDelim(token::Paren),
                &token::CloseDelim(token::Paren),
                SeqSep::trailing_allowed(token::Comma),
                |p| {
                    if p.token == token::DotDotDot {
                        p.bump();
                        if allow_variadic {
                            if p.token != token::CloseDelim(token::Paren) {
                                let span = p.span;
                                p.span_err(span,
                                    "`...` must be last in argument list for variadic function");
                            }
                        } else {
                            let span = p.span;
                            p.span_err(span,
                                       "only foreign functions are allowed to be variadic");
                        }
                        variadic = true;
                        Ok(None)
                    } else {
                        match p.parse_arg_general(named_args) {
                            Ok(arg) => Ok(Some(arg)),
                            Err(mut e) => {
                                e.emit();
                                let lo = p.prev_span;
                                // Skip every token until next possible arg or end.
                                p.eat_to_tokens(&[&token::Comma, &token::CloseDelim(token::Paren)]);
                                // Create a placeholder argument for proper arg count (#34264).
                                let span = lo.to(p.prev_span);
                                Ok(Some(dummy_arg(span)))
                            }
                        }
                    }
                }
            )?;

        let args: Vec<_> = args.into_iter().filter_map(|x| x).collect();

        if variadic && args.is_empty() {
            self.span_err(sp,
                          "variadic function must be declared with at least one named argument");
        }

        Ok((args, variadic))
    }

    /// Parse the argument list and result type of a function declaration
    pub fn parse_fn_decl(&mut self, allow_variadic: bool) -> PResult<'a, P<FnDecl>> {

        let (args, variadic) = self.parse_fn_args(true, allow_variadic)?;
        let ret_ty = self.parse_ret_ty()?;

        Ok(P(FnDecl {
            inputs: args,
            output: ret_ty,
            variadic: variadic
        }))
    }

    /// Returns the parsed optional self argument and whether a self shortcut was used.
    fn parse_self_arg(&mut self) -> PResult<'a, Option<Arg>> {
        let expect_ident = |this: &mut Self| match this.token {
            // Preserve hygienic context.
            token::Ident(ident) => { let sp = this.span; this.bump(); codemap::respan(sp, ident) }
            _ => unreachable!()
        };
        let isolated_self = |this: &mut Self, n| {
            this.look_ahead(n, |t| t.is_keyword(keywords::SelfValue)) &&
            this.look_ahead(n + 1, |t| t != &token::ModSep)
        };

        // Parse optional self parameter of a method.
        // Only a limited set of initial token sequences is considered self parameters, anything
        // else is parsed as a normal function parameter list, so some lookahead is required.
        let eself_lo = self.span;
        let (eself, eself_ident) = match self.token {
            token::BinOp(token::And) => {
                // &self
                // &mut self
                // &'lt self
                // &'lt mut self
                // &not_self
                if isolated_self(self, 1) {
                    self.bump();
                    (SelfKind::Region(None, Mutability::Immutable), expect_ident(self))
                } else if self.look_ahead(1, |t| t.is_keyword(keywords::Mut)) &&
                          isolated_self(self, 2) {
                    self.bump();
                    self.bump();
                    (SelfKind::Region(None, Mutability::Mutable), expect_ident(self))
                } else if self.look_ahead(1, |t| t.is_lifetime()) &&
                          isolated_self(self, 2) {
                    self.bump();
                    let lt = self.expect_lifetime();
                    (SelfKind::Region(Some(lt), Mutability::Immutable), expect_ident(self))
                } else if self.look_ahead(1, |t| t.is_lifetime()) &&
                          self.look_ahead(2, |t| t.is_keyword(keywords::Mut)) &&
                          isolated_self(self, 3) {
                    self.bump();
                    let lt = self.expect_lifetime();
                    self.bump();
                    (SelfKind::Region(Some(lt), Mutability::Mutable), expect_ident(self))
                } else {
                    return Ok(None);
                }
            }
            token::BinOp(token::Star) => {
                // *self
                // *const self
                // *mut self
                // *not_self
                // Emit special error for `self` cases.
                if isolated_self(self, 1) {
                    self.bump();
                    self.span_err(self.span, "cannot pass `self` by raw pointer");
                    (SelfKind::Value(Mutability::Immutable), expect_ident(self))
                } else if self.look_ahead(1, |t| t.is_mutability()) &&
                          isolated_self(self, 2) {
                    self.bump();
                    self.bump();
                    self.span_err(self.span, "cannot pass `self` by raw pointer");
                    (SelfKind::Value(Mutability::Immutable), expect_ident(self))
                } else {
                    return Ok(None);
                }
            }
            token::Ident(..) => {
                if isolated_self(self, 0) {
                    // self
                    // self: TYPE
                    let eself_ident = expect_ident(self);
                    if self.eat(&token::Colon) {
                        let ty = self.parse_ty()?;
                        (SelfKind::Explicit(ty, Mutability::Immutable), eself_ident)
                    } else {
                        (SelfKind::Value(Mutability::Immutable), eself_ident)
                    }
                } else if self.token.is_keyword(keywords::Mut) &&
                          isolated_self(self, 1) {
                    // mut self
                    // mut self: TYPE
                    self.bump();
                    let eself_ident = expect_ident(self);
                    if self.eat(&token::Colon) {
                        let ty = self.parse_ty()?;
                        (SelfKind::Explicit(ty, Mutability::Mutable), eself_ident)
                    } else {
                        (SelfKind::Value(Mutability::Mutable), eself_ident)
                    }
                } else {
                    return Ok(None);
                }
            }
            _ => return Ok(None),
        };

        let eself = codemap::respan(eself_lo.to(self.prev_span), eself);
        Ok(Some(Arg::from_self(eself, eself_ident)))
    }

    /// Parse the parameter list and result type of a function that may have a `self` parameter.
    fn parse_fn_decl_with_self<F>(&mut self, parse_arg_fn: F) -> PResult<'a, P<FnDecl>>
        where F: FnMut(&mut Parser<'a>) -> PResult<'a,  Arg>,
    {
        self.expect(&token::OpenDelim(token::Paren))?;

        // Parse optional self argument
        let self_arg = self.parse_self_arg()?;

        // Parse the rest of the function parameter list.
        let sep = SeqSep::trailing_allowed(token::Comma);
        let fn_inputs = if let Some(self_arg) = self_arg {
            if self.check(&token::CloseDelim(token::Paren)) {
                vec![self_arg]
            } else if self.eat(&token::Comma) {
                let mut fn_inputs = vec![self_arg];
                fn_inputs.append(&mut self.parse_seq_to_before_end(
                    &token::CloseDelim(token::Paren), sep, parse_arg_fn)
                );
                fn_inputs
            } else {
                return self.unexpected();
            }
        } else {
            self.parse_seq_to_before_end(&token::CloseDelim(token::Paren), sep, parse_arg_fn)
        };

        // Parse closing paren and return type.
        self.expect(&token::CloseDelim(token::Paren))?;
        Ok(P(FnDecl {
            inputs: fn_inputs,
            output: self.parse_ret_ty()?,
            variadic: false
        }))
    }

    // parse the |arg, arg| header on a lambda
    fn parse_fn_block_decl(&mut self) -> PResult<'a, P<FnDecl>> {
        let inputs_captures = {
            if self.eat(&token::OrOr) {
                Vec::new()
            } else {
                self.expect(&token::BinOp(token::Or))?;
                let args = self.parse_seq_to_before_end(
                    &token::BinOp(token::Or),
                    SeqSep::trailing_allowed(token::Comma),
                    |p| p.parse_fn_block_arg()
                );
                self.bump();
                args
            }
        };
        let output = self.parse_ret_ty()?;

        Ok(P(FnDecl {
            inputs: inputs_captures,
            output: output,
            variadic: false
        }))
    }

    /// Parse the name and optional generic types of a function header.
    fn parse_fn_header(&mut self) -> PResult<'a, (Ident, ast::Generics)> {
        let id = self.parse_ident()?;
        let generics = self.parse_generics()?;
        Ok((id, generics))
    }

    fn mk_item(&mut self, span: Span, ident: Ident, node: ItemKind, vis: Visibility,
               attrs: Vec<Attribute>) -> P<Item> {
        P(Item {
            ident: ident,
            attrs: attrs,
            id: ast::DUMMY_NODE_ID,
            node: node,
            vis: vis,
            span: span,
        })
    }

    /// Parse an item-position function declaration.
    fn parse_item_fn(&mut self,
                     unsafety: Unsafety,
                     constness: Spanned<Constness>,
                     abi: abi::Abi)
                     -> PResult<'a, ItemInfo> {
        let (ident, mut generics) = self.parse_fn_header()?;
        let decl = self.parse_fn_decl(false)?;
        generics.where_clause = self.parse_where_clause()?;
        let (inner_attrs, body) = self.parse_inner_attrs_and_block()?;
        Ok((ident, ItemKind::Fn(decl, unsafety, constness, abi, generics, body), Some(inner_attrs)))
    }

    /// true if we are looking at `const ID`, false for things like `const fn` etc
    pub fn is_const_item(&mut self) -> bool {
        self.token.is_keyword(keywords::Const) &&
            !self.look_ahead(1, |t| t.is_keyword(keywords::Fn)) &&
            !self.look_ahead(1, |t| t.is_keyword(keywords::Unsafe))
    }

    /// parses all the "front matter" for a `fn` declaration, up to
    /// and including the `fn` keyword:
    ///
    /// - `const fn`
    /// - `unsafe fn`
    /// - `const unsafe fn`
    /// - `extern fn`
    /// - etc
    pub fn parse_fn_front_matter(&mut self)
                                 -> PResult<'a, (Spanned<ast::Constness>,
                                                ast::Unsafety,
                                                abi::Abi)> {
        let is_const_fn = self.eat_keyword(keywords::Const);
        let const_span = self.prev_span;
        let unsafety = self.parse_unsafety()?;
        let (constness, unsafety, abi) = if is_const_fn {
            (respan(const_span, Constness::Const), unsafety, Abi::Rust)
        } else {
            let abi = if self.eat_keyword(keywords::Extern) {
                self.parse_opt_abi()?.unwrap_or(Abi::C)
            } else {
                Abi::Rust
            };
            (respan(self.prev_span, Constness::NotConst), unsafety, abi)
        };
        self.expect_keyword(keywords::Fn)?;
        Ok((constness, unsafety, abi))
    }

    /// Parse an impl item.
    pub fn parse_impl_item(&mut self, at_end: &mut bool) -> PResult<'a, ImplItem> {
        maybe_whole!(self, NtImplItem, |x| x);

        let mut attrs = self.parse_outer_attributes()?;
        let lo = self.span;
        let vis = self.parse_visibility(false)?;
        let defaultness = self.parse_defaultness()?;
        let (name, node) = if self.eat_keyword(keywords::Type) {
            let name = self.parse_ident()?;
            self.expect(&token::Eq)?;
            let typ = self.parse_ty()?;
            self.expect(&token::Semi)?;
            (name, ast::ImplItemKind::Type(typ))
        } else if self.is_const_item() {
            self.expect_keyword(keywords::Const)?;
            let name = self.parse_ident()?;
            self.expect(&token::Colon)?;
            let typ = self.parse_ty()?;
            self.expect(&token::Eq)?;
            let expr = self.parse_expr()?;
            self.expect(&token::Semi)?;
            (name, ast::ImplItemKind::Const(typ, expr))
        } else {
            let (name, inner_attrs, node) = self.parse_impl_method(&vis, at_end)?;
            attrs.extend(inner_attrs);
            (name, node)
        };

        Ok(ImplItem {
            id: ast::DUMMY_NODE_ID,
            span: lo.to(self.prev_span),
            ident: name,
            vis: vis,
            defaultness: defaultness,
            attrs: attrs,
            node: node
        })
    }

    fn complain_if_pub_macro(&mut self, vis: &Visibility, sp: Span) {
        if let Err(mut err) = self.complain_if_pub_macro_diag(vis, sp) {
            err.emit();
        }
    }

    fn complain_if_pub_macro_diag(&mut self, vis: &Visibility, sp: Span) -> PResult<'a, ()> {
        match *vis {
            Visibility::Inherited => Ok(()),
            _ => {
                let is_macro_rules: bool = match self.token {
                    token::Ident(sid) => sid.name == Symbol::intern("macro_rules"),
                    _ => false,
                };
                if is_macro_rules {
                    let mut err = self.diagnostic()
                        .struct_span_err(sp, "can't qualify macro_rules invocation with `pub`");
                    err.help("did you mean #[macro_export]?");
                    Err(err)
                } else {
                    let mut err = self.diagnostic()
                        .struct_span_err(sp, "can't qualify macro invocation with `pub`");
                    err.help("try adjusting the macro to put `pub` inside the invocation");
                    Err(err)
                }
            }
        }
    }

    fn missing_assoc_item_kind_err(&mut self, item_type: &str, prev_span: Span)
                                   -> DiagnosticBuilder<'a>
    {
        // Given this code `path(`, it seems like this is not
        // setting the visibility of a macro invocation, but rather
        // a mistyped method declaration.
        // Create a diagnostic pointing out that `fn` is missing.
        //
        // x |     pub path(&self) {
        //   |        ^ missing `fn`, `type`, or `const`
        //     pub  path(
        //        ^^ `sp` below will point to this
        let sp = prev_span.between(self.prev_span);
        let mut err = self.diagnostic().struct_span_err(
            sp,
            &format!("missing `fn`, `type`, or `const` for {}-item declaration",
                     item_type));
        err.span_label(sp, &"missing `fn`, `type`, or `const`");
        err
    }

    /// Parse a method or a macro invocation in a trait impl.
    fn parse_impl_method(&mut self, vis: &Visibility, at_end: &mut bool)
                         -> PResult<'a, (Ident, Vec<ast::Attribute>, ast::ImplItemKind)> {
        // code copied from parse_macro_use_or_failure... abstraction!
        if self.token.is_path_start() {
            // Method macro.

            let prev_span = self.prev_span;

            let lo = self.span;
            let pth = self.parse_path(PathStyle::Mod)?;
            if pth.segments.len() == 1 {
                if !self.eat(&token::Not) {
                    return Err(self.missing_assoc_item_kind_err("impl", prev_span));
                }
            } else {
                self.expect(&token::Not)?;
            }

            self.complain_if_pub_macro(&vis, prev_span);

            // eat a matched-delimiter token tree:
            *at_end = true;
            let (delim, tts) = self.expect_delimited_token_tree()?;
            if delim != token::Brace {
                self.expect(&token::Semi)?
            }

            let mac = respan(lo.to(self.prev_span), Mac_ { path: pth, tts: tts });
            Ok((keywords::Invalid.ident(), vec![], ast::ImplItemKind::Macro(mac)))
        } else {
            let (constness, unsafety, abi) = self.parse_fn_front_matter()?;
            let ident = self.parse_ident()?;
            let mut generics = self.parse_generics()?;
            let decl = self.parse_fn_decl_with_self(|p| p.parse_arg())?;
            generics.where_clause = self.parse_where_clause()?;
            *at_end = true;
            let (inner_attrs, body) = self.parse_inner_attrs_and_block()?;
            Ok((ident, inner_attrs, ast::ImplItemKind::Method(ast::MethodSig {
                generics: generics,
                abi: abi,
                unsafety: unsafety,
                constness: constness,
                decl: decl
             }, body)))
        }
    }

    /// Parse trait Foo { ... }
    fn parse_item_trait(&mut self, unsafety: Unsafety) -> PResult<'a, ItemInfo> {
        let ident = self.parse_ident()?;
        let mut tps = self.parse_generics()?;

        // Parse optional colon and supertrait bounds.
        let bounds = if self.eat(&token::Colon) {
            self.parse_ty_param_bounds()?
        } else {
            Vec::new()
        };

        tps.where_clause = self.parse_where_clause()?;

        self.expect(&token::OpenDelim(token::Brace))?;
        let mut trait_items = vec![];
        while !self.eat(&token::CloseDelim(token::Brace)) {
            let mut at_end = false;
            match self.parse_trait_item(&mut at_end) {
                Ok(item) => trait_items.push(item),
                Err(mut e) => {
                    e.emit();
                    if !at_end {
                        self.recover_stmt_(SemiColonMode::Break, BlockMode::Break);
                    }
                }
            }
        }
        Ok((ident, ItemKind::Trait(unsafety, tps, bounds, trait_items), None))
    }

    /// Parses items implementations variants
    ///    impl<T> Foo { ... }
    ///    impl<T> ToString for &'static T { ... }
    ///    impl Send for .. {}
    fn parse_item_impl(&mut self,
                       unsafety: ast::Unsafety,
                       defaultness: Defaultness) -> PResult<'a, ItemInfo> {
        let impl_span = self.span;

        // First, parse type parameters if necessary.
        let mut generics = self.parse_generics()?;

        // Special case: if the next identifier that follows is '(', don't
        // allow this to be parsed as a trait.
        let could_be_trait = self.token != token::OpenDelim(token::Paren);

        let neg_span = self.span;
        let polarity = if self.eat(&token::Not) {
            ast::ImplPolarity::Negative
        } else {
            ast::ImplPolarity::Positive
        };

        // Parse the trait.
        let mut ty = self.parse_ty()?;

        // Parse traits, if necessary.
        let opt_trait = if could_be_trait && self.eat_keyword(keywords::For) {
            // New-style trait. Reinterpret the type as a trait.
            match ty.node {
                TyKind::Path(None, ref path) => {
                    Some(TraitRef {
                        path: (*path).clone(),
                        ref_id: ty.id,
                    })
                }
                _ => {
                    self.span_err(ty.span, "not a trait");
                    None
                }
            }
        } else {
            match polarity {
                ast::ImplPolarity::Negative => {
                    // This is a negated type implementation
                    // `impl !MyType {}`, which is not allowed.
                    self.span_err(neg_span, "inherent implementation can't be negated");
                },
                _ => {}
            }
            None
        };

        if opt_trait.is_some() && self.eat(&token::DotDot) {
            if generics.is_parameterized() {
                self.span_err(impl_span, "default trait implementations are not \
                                          allowed to have generics");
            }

            if let ast::Defaultness::Default = defaultness {
                self.span_err(impl_span, "`default impl` is not allowed for \
                                         default trait implementations");
            }

            self.expect(&token::OpenDelim(token::Brace))?;
            self.expect(&token::CloseDelim(token::Brace))?;
            Ok((keywords::Invalid.ident(),
             ItemKind::DefaultImpl(unsafety, opt_trait.unwrap()), None))
        } else {
            if opt_trait.is_some() {
                ty = self.parse_ty()?;
            }
            generics.where_clause = self.parse_where_clause()?;

            self.expect(&token::OpenDelim(token::Brace))?;
            let attrs = self.parse_inner_attributes()?;

            let mut impl_items = vec![];
            while !self.eat(&token::CloseDelim(token::Brace)) {
                let mut at_end = false;
                match self.parse_impl_item(&mut at_end) {
                    Ok(item) => impl_items.push(item),
                    Err(mut e) => {
                        e.emit();
                        if !at_end {
                            self.recover_stmt_(SemiColonMode::Break, BlockMode::Break);
                        }
                    }
                }
            }

            Ok((keywords::Invalid.ident(),
             ItemKind::Impl(unsafety, polarity, defaultness, generics, opt_trait, ty, impl_items),
             Some(attrs)))
        }
    }

    fn parse_late_bound_lifetime_defs(&mut self) -> PResult<'a, Vec<LifetimeDef>> {
        if self.eat_keyword(keywords::For) {
            self.expect_lt()?;
            let (lifetime_defs, ty_params) = self.parse_generic_params()?;
            self.expect_gt()?;
            if !ty_params.is_empty() {
                self.span_err(ty_params[0].span,
                              "only lifetime parameters can be used in this context");
            }
            Ok(lifetime_defs)
        } else {
            Ok(Vec::new())
        }
    }

    /// Parse struct Foo { ... }
    fn parse_item_struct(&mut self) -> PResult<'a, ItemInfo> {
        let class_name = self.parse_ident()?;

        let mut generics = self.parse_generics()?;

        // There is a special case worth noting here, as reported in issue #17904.
        // If we are parsing a tuple struct it is the case that the where clause
        // should follow the field list. Like so:
        //
        // struct Foo<T>(T) where T: Copy;
        //
        // If we are parsing a normal record-style struct it is the case
        // that the where clause comes before the body, and after the generics.
        // So if we look ahead and see a brace or a where-clause we begin
        // parsing a record style struct.
        //
        // Otherwise if we look ahead and see a paren we parse a tuple-style
        // struct.

        let vdata = if self.token.is_keyword(keywords::Where) {
            generics.where_clause = self.parse_where_clause()?;
            if self.eat(&token::Semi) {
                // If we see a: `struct Foo<T> where T: Copy;` style decl.
                VariantData::Unit(ast::DUMMY_NODE_ID)
            } else {
                // If we see: `struct Foo<T> where T: Copy { ... }`
                VariantData::Struct(self.parse_record_struct_body()?, ast::DUMMY_NODE_ID)
            }
        // No `where` so: `struct Foo<T>;`
        } else if self.eat(&token::Semi) {
            VariantData::Unit(ast::DUMMY_NODE_ID)
        // Record-style struct definition
        } else if self.token == token::OpenDelim(token::Brace) {
            VariantData::Struct(self.parse_record_struct_body()?, ast::DUMMY_NODE_ID)
        // Tuple-style struct definition with optional where-clause.
        } else if self.token == token::OpenDelim(token::Paren) {
            let body = VariantData::Tuple(self.parse_tuple_struct_body()?, ast::DUMMY_NODE_ID);
            generics.where_clause = self.parse_where_clause()?;
            self.expect(&token::Semi)?;
            body
        } else {
            let token_str = self.this_token_to_string();
            return Err(self.fatal(&format!("expected `where`, `{{`, `(`, or `;` after struct \
                                            name, found `{}`", token_str)))
        };

        Ok((class_name, ItemKind::Struct(vdata, generics), None))
    }

    /// Parse union Foo { ... }
    fn parse_item_union(&mut self) -> PResult<'a, ItemInfo> {
        let class_name = self.parse_ident()?;

        let mut generics = self.parse_generics()?;

        let vdata = if self.token.is_keyword(keywords::Where) {
            generics.where_clause = self.parse_where_clause()?;
            VariantData::Struct(self.parse_record_struct_body()?, ast::DUMMY_NODE_ID)
        } else if self.token == token::OpenDelim(token::Brace) {
            VariantData::Struct(self.parse_record_struct_body()?, ast::DUMMY_NODE_ID)
        } else {
            let token_str = self.this_token_to_string();
            return Err(self.fatal(&format!("expected `where` or `{{` after union \
                                            name, found `{}`", token_str)))
        };

        Ok((class_name, ItemKind::Union(vdata, generics), None))
    }

    pub fn parse_record_struct_body(&mut self) -> PResult<'a, Vec<StructField>> {
        let mut fields = Vec::new();
        if self.eat(&token::OpenDelim(token::Brace)) {
            while self.token != token::CloseDelim(token::Brace) {
                fields.push(self.parse_struct_decl_field().map_err(|e| {
                    self.recover_stmt();
                    self.eat(&token::CloseDelim(token::Brace));
                    e
                })?);
            }

            self.bump();
        } else {
            let token_str = self.this_token_to_string();
            return Err(self.fatal(&format!("expected `where`, or `{{` after struct \
                                name, found `{}`",
                                token_str)));
        }

        Ok(fields)
    }

    pub fn parse_tuple_struct_body(&mut self) -> PResult<'a, Vec<StructField>> {
        // This is the case where we find `struct Foo<T>(T) where T: Copy;`
        // Unit like structs are handled in parse_item_struct function
        let fields = self.parse_unspanned_seq(
            &token::OpenDelim(token::Paren),
            &token::CloseDelim(token::Paren),
            SeqSep::trailing_allowed(token::Comma),
            |p| {
                let attrs = p.parse_outer_attributes()?;
                let lo = p.span;
                let vis = p.parse_visibility(true)?;
                let ty = p.parse_ty()?;
                Ok(StructField {
                    span: lo.to(p.span),
                    vis: vis,
                    ident: None,
                    id: ast::DUMMY_NODE_ID,
                    ty: ty,
                    attrs: attrs,
                })
            })?;

        Ok(fields)
    }

    /// Parse a structure field declaration
    pub fn parse_single_struct_field(&mut self,
                                     lo: Span,
                                     vis: Visibility,
                                     attrs: Vec<Attribute> )
                                     -> PResult<'a, StructField> {
        let a_var = self.parse_name_and_ty(lo, vis, attrs)?;
        match self.token {
            token::Comma => {
                self.bump();
            }
            token::CloseDelim(token::Brace) => {}
            token::DocComment(_) => return Err(self.span_fatal_err(self.span,
                                                                   Error::UselessDocComment)),
            _ => return Err(self.span_fatal_help(self.span,
                    &format!("expected `,`, or `}}`, found `{}`", self.this_token_to_string()),
                    "struct fields should be separated by commas")),
        }
        Ok(a_var)
    }

    /// Parse an element of a struct definition
    fn parse_struct_decl_field(&mut self) -> PResult<'a, StructField> {
        let attrs = self.parse_outer_attributes()?;
        let lo = self.span;
        let vis = self.parse_visibility(false)?;
        self.parse_single_struct_field(lo, vis, attrs)
    }

    /// Parse `pub`, `pub(crate)` and `pub(in path)` plus shortcuts `pub(self)` for `pub(in self)`
    /// and `pub(super)` for `pub(in super)`.  If the following element can't be a tuple (i.e. it's
    /// a function definition, it's not a tuple struct field) and the contents within the parens
    /// isn't valid, emit a proper diagnostic.
    pub fn parse_visibility(&mut self, can_take_tuple: bool) -> PResult<'a, Visibility> {
        maybe_whole!(self, NtVis, |x| x);

        if !self.eat_keyword(keywords::Pub) {
            return Ok(Visibility::Inherited)
        }

        if self.check(&token::OpenDelim(token::Paren)) {
            // We don't `self.bump()` the `(` yet because this might be a struct definition where
            // `()` or a tuple might be allowed. For example, `struct Struct(pub (), pub (usize));`.
            // Because of this, we only `bump` the `(` if we're assured it is appropriate to do so
            // by the following tokens.
            if self.look_ahead(1, |t| t.is_keyword(keywords::Crate)) {
                // `pub(crate)`
                self.bump(); // `(`
                self.bump(); // `crate`
                let vis = Visibility::Crate(self.prev_span);
                self.expect(&token::CloseDelim(token::Paren))?; // `)`
                return Ok(vis)
            } else if self.look_ahead(1, |t| t.is_keyword(keywords::In)) {
                // `pub(in path)`
                self.bump(); // `(`
                self.bump(); // `in`
                let path = self.parse_path(PathStyle::Mod)?.default_to_global(); // `path`
                let vis = Visibility::Restricted { path: P(path), id: ast::DUMMY_NODE_ID };
                self.expect(&token::CloseDelim(token::Paren))?; // `)`
                return Ok(vis)
            } else if self.look_ahead(2, |t| t == &token::CloseDelim(token::Paren)) &&
                      self.look_ahead(1, |t| t.is_keyword(keywords::Super) ||
                                             t.is_keyword(keywords::SelfValue)) {
                // `pub(self)` or `pub(super)`
                self.bump(); // `(`
                let path = self.parse_path(PathStyle::Mod)?.default_to_global(); // `super`/`self`
                let vis = Visibility::Restricted { path: P(path), id: ast::DUMMY_NODE_ID };
                self.expect(&token::CloseDelim(token::Paren))?; // `)`
                return Ok(vis)
            } else if !can_take_tuple {  // Provide this diagnostic if this is not a tuple struct
                // `pub(something) fn ...` or `struct X { pub(something) y: Z }`
                self.bump(); // `(`
                let msg = "incorrect visibility restriction";
                let suggestion = r##"some possible visibility restrictions are:
`pub(crate)`: visible only on the current crate
`pub(super)`: visible only in the current module's parent
`pub(in path::to::module)`: visible only on the specified path"##;
                let path = self.parse_path(PathStyle::Mod)?;
                let path_span = self.prev_span;
                let help_msg = format!("make this visible only to module `{}` with `in`:", path);
                self.expect(&token::CloseDelim(token::Paren))?;  // `)`
                let mut err = self.span_fatal_help(path_span, &msg, &suggestion);
                err.span_suggestion(path_span, &help_msg, format!("in {}", path));
                err.emit();  // emit diagnostic, but continue with public visibility
            }
        }

        Ok(Visibility::Public)
    }

    /// Parse defaultness: DEFAULT or nothing
    fn parse_defaultness(&mut self) -> PResult<'a, Defaultness> {
        if self.eat_contextual_keyword(keywords::Default.ident()) {
            Ok(Defaultness::Default)
        } else {
            Ok(Defaultness::Final)
        }
    }

    /// Given a termination token, parse all of the items in a module
    fn parse_mod_items(&mut self, term: &token::Token, inner_lo: Span) -> PResult<'a, Mod> {
        let mut items = vec![];
        while let Some(item) = self.parse_item()? {
            items.push(item);
        }

        if !self.eat(term) {
            let token_str = self.this_token_to_string();
            return Err(self.fatal(&format!("expected item, found `{}`", token_str)));
        }

        let hi = if self.span == syntax_pos::DUMMY_SP {
            inner_lo
        } else {
            self.prev_span
        };

        Ok(ast::Mod {
            inner: inner_lo.to(hi),
            items: items
        })
    }

    fn parse_item_const(&mut self, m: Option<Mutability>) -> PResult<'a, ItemInfo> {
        let id = self.parse_ident()?;
        self.expect(&token::Colon)?;
        let ty = self.parse_ty()?;
        self.expect(&token::Eq)?;
        let e = self.parse_expr()?;
        self.expect(&token::Semi)?;
        let item = match m {
            Some(m) => ItemKind::Static(ty, m, e),
            None => ItemKind::Const(ty, e),
        };
        Ok((id, item, None))
    }

    /// Parse a `mod <foo> { ... }` or `mod <foo>;` item
    fn parse_item_mod(&mut self, outer_attrs: &[Attribute]) -> PResult<'a, ItemInfo> {
        let (in_cfg, outer_attrs) = {
            let mut strip_unconfigured = ::config::StripUnconfigured {
                sess: self.sess,
                should_test: false, // irrelevant
                features: None, // don't perform gated feature checking
            };
            let outer_attrs = strip_unconfigured.process_cfg_attrs(outer_attrs.to_owned());
            (!self.cfg_mods || strip_unconfigured.in_cfg(&outer_attrs), outer_attrs)
        };

        let id_span = self.span;
        let id = self.parse_ident()?;
        if self.check(&token::Semi) {
            self.bump();
            if in_cfg {
                // This mod is in an external file. Let's go get it!
                let ModulePathSuccess { path, directory_ownership, warn } =
                    self.submod_path(id, &outer_attrs, id_span)?;
                let (module, mut attrs) =
                    self.eval_src_mod(path, directory_ownership, id.to_string(), id_span)?;
                if warn {
                    let attr = ast::Attribute {
                        id: attr::mk_attr_id(),
                        style: ast::AttrStyle::Outer,
                        path: ast::Path::from_ident(syntax_pos::DUMMY_SP,
                                                    Ident::from_str("warn_directory_ownership")),
                        tokens: TokenStream::empty(),
                        is_sugared_doc: false,
                        span: syntax_pos::DUMMY_SP,
                    };
                    attr::mark_known(&attr);
                    attrs.push(attr);
                }
                Ok((id, module, Some(attrs)))
            } else {
                let placeholder = ast::Mod { inner: syntax_pos::DUMMY_SP, items: Vec::new() };
                Ok((id, ItemKind::Mod(placeholder), None))
            }
        } else {
            let old_directory = self.directory.clone();
            self.push_directory(id, &outer_attrs);
            self.expect(&token::OpenDelim(token::Brace))?;
            let mod_inner_lo = self.span;
            let attrs = self.parse_inner_attributes()?;
            let module = self.parse_mod_items(&token::CloseDelim(token::Brace), mod_inner_lo)?;
            self.directory = old_directory;
            Ok((id, ItemKind::Mod(module), Some(attrs)))
        }
    }

    fn push_directory(&mut self, id: Ident, attrs: &[Attribute]) {
        if let Some(path) = attr::first_attr_value_str_by_name(attrs, "path") {
            self.directory.path.push(&path.as_str());
            self.directory.ownership = DirectoryOwnership::Owned;
        } else {
            self.directory.path.push(&id.name.as_str());
        }
    }

    pub fn submod_path_from_attr(attrs: &[ast::Attribute], dir_path: &Path) -> Option<PathBuf> {
        attr::first_attr_value_str_by_name(attrs, "path").map(|d| dir_path.join(&d.as_str()))
    }

    /// Returns either a path to a module, or .
    pub fn default_submod_path(id: ast::Ident, dir_path: &Path, codemap: &CodeMap) -> ModulePath {
        let mod_name = id.to_string();
        let default_path_str = format!("{}.rs", mod_name);
        let secondary_path_str = format!("{}{}mod.rs", mod_name, path::MAIN_SEPARATOR);
        let default_path = dir_path.join(&default_path_str);
        let secondary_path = dir_path.join(&secondary_path_str);
        let default_exists = codemap.file_exists(&default_path);
        let secondary_exists = codemap.file_exists(&secondary_path);

        let result = match (default_exists, secondary_exists) {
            (true, false) => Ok(ModulePathSuccess {
                path: default_path,
                directory_ownership: DirectoryOwnership::UnownedViaMod(false),
                warn: false,
            }),
            (false, true) => Ok(ModulePathSuccess {
                path: secondary_path,
                directory_ownership: DirectoryOwnership::Owned,
                warn: false,
            }),
            (false, false) => Err(Error::FileNotFoundForModule {
                mod_name: mod_name.clone(),
                default_path: default_path_str,
                secondary_path: secondary_path_str,
                dir_path: format!("{}", dir_path.display()),
            }),
            (true, true) => Err(Error::DuplicatePaths {
                mod_name: mod_name.clone(),
                default_path: default_path_str,
                secondary_path: secondary_path_str,
            }),
        };

        ModulePath {
            name: mod_name,
            path_exists: default_exists || secondary_exists,
            result: result,
        }
    }

    fn submod_path(&mut self,
                   id: ast::Ident,
                   outer_attrs: &[ast::Attribute],
                   id_sp: Span) -> PResult<'a, ModulePathSuccess> {
        if let Some(path) = Parser::submod_path_from_attr(outer_attrs, &self.directory.path) {
            return Ok(ModulePathSuccess {
                directory_ownership: match path.file_name().and_then(|s| s.to_str()) {
                    Some("mod.rs") => DirectoryOwnership::Owned,
                    _ => DirectoryOwnership::UnownedViaMod(true),
                },
                path: path,
                warn: false,
            });
        }

        let paths = Parser::default_submod_path(id, &self.directory.path, self.sess.codemap());

        if let DirectoryOwnership::UnownedViaBlock = self.directory.ownership {
            let msg =
                "Cannot declare a non-inline module inside a block unless it has a path attribute";
            let mut err = self.diagnostic().struct_span_err(id_sp, msg);
            if paths.path_exists {
                let msg = format!("Maybe `use` the module `{}` instead of redeclaring it",
                                  paths.name);
                err.span_note(id_sp, &msg);
            }
            Err(err)
        } else if let DirectoryOwnership::UnownedViaMod(warn) = self.directory.ownership {
            if warn {
                if let Ok(result) = paths.result {
                    return Ok(ModulePathSuccess { warn: true, ..result });
                }
            }
            let mut err = self.diagnostic().struct_span_err(id_sp,
                "cannot declare a new module at this location");
            if id_sp != syntax_pos::DUMMY_SP {
                let src_path = PathBuf::from(self.sess.codemap().span_to_filename(id_sp));
                if let Some(stem) = src_path.file_stem() {
                    let mut dest_path = src_path.clone();
                    dest_path.set_file_name(stem);
                    dest_path.push("mod.rs");
                    err.span_note(id_sp,
                                  &format!("maybe move this module `{}` to its own \
                                            directory via `{}`", src_path.to_string_lossy(),
                                           dest_path.to_string_lossy()));
                }
            }
            if paths.path_exists {
                err.span_note(id_sp,
                              &format!("... or maybe `use` the module `{}` instead \
                                        of possibly redeclaring it",
                                       paths.name));
            }
            Err(err)
        } else {
            paths.result.map_err(|err| self.span_fatal_err(id_sp, err))
        }
    }

    /// Read a module from a source file.
    fn eval_src_mod(&mut self,
                    path: PathBuf,
                    directory_ownership: DirectoryOwnership,
                    name: String,
                    id_sp: Span)
                    -> PResult<'a, (ast::ItemKind, Vec<ast::Attribute> )> {
        let mut included_mod_stack = self.sess.included_mod_stack.borrow_mut();
        if let Some(i) = included_mod_stack.iter().position(|p| *p == path) {
            let mut err = String::from("circular modules: ");
            let len = included_mod_stack.len();
            for p in &included_mod_stack[i.. len] {
                err.push_str(&p.to_string_lossy());
                err.push_str(" -> ");
            }
            err.push_str(&path.to_string_lossy());
            return Err(self.span_fatal(id_sp, &err[..]));
        }
        included_mod_stack.push(path.clone());
        drop(included_mod_stack);

        let mut p0 =
            new_sub_parser_from_file(self.sess, &path, directory_ownership, Some(name), id_sp);
        p0.cfg_mods = self.cfg_mods;
        let mod_inner_lo = p0.span;
        let mod_attrs = p0.parse_inner_attributes()?;
        let m0 = p0.parse_mod_items(&token::Eof, mod_inner_lo)?;
        self.sess.included_mod_stack.borrow_mut().pop();
        Ok((ast::ItemKind::Mod(m0), mod_attrs))
    }

    /// Parse a function declaration from a foreign module
    fn parse_item_foreign_fn(&mut self, vis: ast::Visibility, lo: Span, attrs: Vec<Attribute>)
                             -> PResult<'a, ForeignItem> {
        self.expect_keyword(keywords::Fn)?;

        let (ident, mut generics) = self.parse_fn_header()?;
        let decl = self.parse_fn_decl(true)?;
        generics.where_clause = self.parse_where_clause()?;
        let hi = self.span;
        self.expect(&token::Semi)?;
        Ok(ast::ForeignItem {
            ident: ident,
            attrs: attrs,
            node: ForeignItemKind::Fn(decl, generics),
            id: ast::DUMMY_NODE_ID,
            span: lo.to(hi),
            vis: vis
        })
    }

    /// Parse a static item from a foreign module
    fn parse_item_foreign_static(&mut self, vis: ast::Visibility, lo: Span, attrs: Vec<Attribute>)
                                 -> PResult<'a, ForeignItem> {
        self.expect_keyword(keywords::Static)?;
        let mutbl = self.eat_keyword(keywords::Mut);

        let ident = self.parse_ident()?;
        self.expect(&token::Colon)?;
        let ty = self.parse_ty()?;
        let hi = self.span;
        self.expect(&token::Semi)?;
        Ok(ForeignItem {
            ident: ident,
            attrs: attrs,
            node: ForeignItemKind::Static(ty, mutbl),
            id: ast::DUMMY_NODE_ID,
            span: lo.to(hi),
            vis: vis
        })
    }

    /// Parse extern crate links
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// extern crate foo;
    /// extern crate bar as foo;
    fn parse_item_extern_crate(&mut self,
                               lo: Span,
                               visibility: Visibility,
                               attrs: Vec<Attribute>)
                                -> PResult<'a, P<Item>> {

        let crate_name = self.parse_ident()?;
        let (maybe_path, ident) = if let Some(ident) = self.parse_rename()? {
            (Some(crate_name.name), ident)
        } else {
            (None, crate_name)
        };
        self.expect(&token::Semi)?;

        let prev_span = self.prev_span;
        Ok(self.mk_item(lo.to(prev_span),
                        ident,
                        ItemKind::ExternCrate(maybe_path),
                        visibility,
                        attrs))
    }

    /// Parse `extern` for foreign ABIs
    /// modules.
    ///
    /// `extern` is expected to have been
    /// consumed before calling this method
    ///
    /// # Examples:
    ///
    /// extern "C" {}
    /// extern {}
    fn parse_item_foreign_mod(&mut self,
                              lo: Span,
                              opt_abi: Option<abi::Abi>,
                              visibility: Visibility,
                              mut attrs: Vec<Attribute>)
                              -> PResult<'a, P<Item>> {
        self.expect(&token::OpenDelim(token::Brace))?;

        let abi = opt_abi.unwrap_or(Abi::C);

        attrs.extend(self.parse_inner_attributes()?);

        let mut foreign_items = vec![];
        while let Some(item) = self.parse_foreign_item()? {
            foreign_items.push(item);
        }
        self.expect(&token::CloseDelim(token::Brace))?;

        let prev_span = self.prev_span;
        let m = ast::ForeignMod {
            abi: abi,
            items: foreign_items
        };
        let invalid = keywords::Invalid.ident();
        Ok(self.mk_item(lo.to(prev_span), invalid, ItemKind::ForeignMod(m), visibility, attrs))
    }

    /// Parse type Foo = Bar;
    fn parse_item_type(&mut self) -> PResult<'a, ItemInfo> {
        let ident = self.parse_ident()?;
        let mut tps = self.parse_generics()?;
        tps.where_clause = self.parse_where_clause()?;
        self.expect(&token::Eq)?;
        let ty = self.parse_ty()?;
        self.expect(&token::Semi)?;
        Ok((ident, ItemKind::Ty(ty, tps), None))
    }

    /// Parse the part of an "enum" decl following the '{'
    fn parse_enum_def(&mut self, _generics: &ast::Generics) -> PResult<'a, EnumDef> {
        let mut variants = Vec::new();
        let mut all_nullary = true;
        let mut any_disr = None;
        while self.token != token::CloseDelim(token::Brace) {
            let variant_attrs = self.parse_outer_attributes()?;
            let vlo = self.span;

            let struct_def;
            let mut disr_expr = None;
            let ident = self.parse_ident()?;
            if self.check(&token::OpenDelim(token::Brace)) {
                // Parse a struct variant.
                all_nullary = false;
                struct_def = VariantData::Struct(self.parse_record_struct_body()?,
                                                 ast::DUMMY_NODE_ID);
            } else if self.check(&token::OpenDelim(token::Paren)) {
                all_nullary = false;
                struct_def = VariantData::Tuple(self.parse_tuple_struct_body()?,
                                                ast::DUMMY_NODE_ID);
            } else if self.eat(&token::Eq) {
                disr_expr = Some(self.parse_expr()?);
                any_disr = disr_expr.as_ref().map(|expr| expr.span);
                struct_def = VariantData::Unit(ast::DUMMY_NODE_ID);
            } else {
                struct_def = VariantData::Unit(ast::DUMMY_NODE_ID);
            }

            let vr = ast::Variant_ {
                name: ident,
                attrs: variant_attrs,
                data: struct_def,
                disr_expr: disr_expr,
            };
            variants.push(respan(vlo.to(self.prev_span), vr));

            if !self.eat(&token::Comma) { break; }
        }
        self.expect(&token::CloseDelim(token::Brace))?;
        match any_disr {
            Some(disr_span) if !all_nullary =>
                self.span_err(disr_span,
                    "discriminator values can only be used with a c-like enum"),
            _ => ()
        }

        Ok(ast::EnumDef { variants: variants })
    }

    /// Parse an "enum" declaration
    fn parse_item_enum(&mut self) -> PResult<'a, ItemInfo> {
        let id = self.parse_ident()?;
        let mut generics = self.parse_generics()?;
        generics.where_clause = self.parse_where_clause()?;
        self.expect(&token::OpenDelim(token::Brace))?;

        let enum_definition = self.parse_enum_def(&generics).map_err(|e| {
            self.recover_stmt();
            self.eat(&token::CloseDelim(token::Brace));
            e
        })?;
        Ok((id, ItemKind::Enum(enum_definition, generics), None))
    }

    /// Parses a string as an ABI spec on an extern type or module. Consumes
    /// the `extern` keyword, if one is found.
    fn parse_opt_abi(&mut self) -> PResult<'a, Option<abi::Abi>> {
        match self.token {
            token::Literal(token::Str_(s), suf) | token::Literal(token::StrRaw(s, _), suf) => {
                let sp = self.span;
                self.expect_no_suffix(sp, "ABI spec", suf);
                self.bump();
                match abi::lookup(&s.as_str()) {
                    Some(abi) => Ok(Some(abi)),
                    None => {
                        let prev_span = self.prev_span;
                        self.span_err(
                            prev_span,
                            &format!("invalid ABI: expected one of [{}], \
                                     found `{}`",
                                    abi::all_names().join(", "),
                                    s));
                        Ok(None)
                    }
                }
            }

            _ => Ok(None),
        }
    }

    /// Parse one of the items allowed by the flags.
    /// NB: this function no longer parses the items inside an
    /// extern crate.
    fn parse_item_(&mut self, attrs: Vec<Attribute>,
                   macros_allowed: bool, attributes_allowed: bool) -> PResult<'a, Option<P<Item>>> {
        maybe_whole!(self, NtItem, |item| {
            let mut item = item.unwrap();
            let mut attrs = attrs;
            mem::swap(&mut item.attrs, &mut attrs);
            item.attrs.extend(attrs);
            Some(P(item))
        });

        let lo = self.span;

        let visibility = self.parse_visibility(false)?;

        if self.eat_keyword(keywords::Use) {
            // USE ITEM
            let item_ = ItemKind::Use(self.parse_view_path()?);
            self.expect(&token::Semi)?;

            let prev_span = self.prev_span;
            let invalid = keywords::Invalid.ident();
            let item = self.mk_item(lo.to(prev_span), invalid, item_, visibility, attrs);
            return Ok(Some(item));
        }

        if self.eat_keyword(keywords::Extern) {
            if self.eat_keyword(keywords::Crate) {
                return Ok(Some(self.parse_item_extern_crate(lo, visibility, attrs)?));
            }

            let opt_abi = self.parse_opt_abi()?;

            if self.eat_keyword(keywords::Fn) {
                // EXTERN FUNCTION ITEM
                let fn_span = self.prev_span;
                let abi = opt_abi.unwrap_or(Abi::C);
                let (ident, item_, extra_attrs) =
                    self.parse_item_fn(Unsafety::Normal,
                                       respan(fn_span, Constness::NotConst),
                                       abi)?;
                let prev_span = self.prev_span;
                let item = self.mk_item(lo.to(prev_span),
                                        ident,
                                        item_,
                                        visibility,
                                        maybe_append(attrs, extra_attrs));
                return Ok(Some(item));
            } else if self.check(&token::OpenDelim(token::Brace)) {
                return Ok(Some(self.parse_item_foreign_mod(lo, opt_abi, visibility, attrs)?));
            }

            self.unexpected()?;
        }

        if self.eat_keyword(keywords::Static) {
            // STATIC ITEM
            let m = if self.eat_keyword(keywords::Mut) {
                Mutability::Mutable
            } else {
                Mutability::Immutable
            };
            let (ident, item_, extra_attrs) = self.parse_item_const(Some(m))?;
            let prev_span = self.prev_span;
            let item = self.mk_item(lo.to(prev_span),
                                    ident,
                                    item_,
                                    visibility,
                                    maybe_append(attrs, extra_attrs));
            return Ok(Some(item));
        }
        if self.eat_keyword(keywords::Const) {
            let const_span = self.prev_span;
            if self.check_keyword(keywords::Fn)
                || (self.check_keyword(keywords::Unsafe)
                    && self.look_ahead(1, |t| t.is_keyword(keywords::Fn))) {
                // CONST FUNCTION ITEM
                let unsafety = if self.eat_keyword(keywords::Unsafe) {
                    Unsafety::Unsafe
                } else {
                    Unsafety::Normal
                };
                self.bump();
                let (ident, item_, extra_attrs) =
                    self.parse_item_fn(unsafety,
                                       respan(const_span, Constness::Const),
                                       Abi::Rust)?;
                let prev_span = self.prev_span;
                let item = self.mk_item(lo.to(prev_span),
                                        ident,
                                        item_,
                                        visibility,
                                        maybe_append(attrs, extra_attrs));
                return Ok(Some(item));
            }

            // CONST ITEM
            if self.eat_keyword(keywords::Mut) {
                let prev_span = self.prev_span;
                self.diagnostic().struct_span_err(prev_span, "const globals cannot be mutable")
                                 .help("did you mean to declare a static?")
                                 .emit();
            }
            let (ident, item_, extra_attrs) = self.parse_item_const(None)?;
            let prev_span = self.prev_span;
            let item = self.mk_item(lo.to(prev_span),
                                    ident,
                                    item_,
                                    visibility,
                                    maybe_append(attrs, extra_attrs));
            return Ok(Some(item));
        }
        if self.check_keyword(keywords::Unsafe) &&
            self.look_ahead(1, |t| t.is_keyword(keywords::Trait))
        {
            // UNSAFE TRAIT ITEM
            self.expect_keyword(keywords::Unsafe)?;
            self.expect_keyword(keywords::Trait)?;
            let (ident, item_, extra_attrs) =
                self.parse_item_trait(ast::Unsafety::Unsafe)?;
            let prev_span = self.prev_span;
            let item = self.mk_item(lo.to(prev_span),
                                    ident,
                                    item_,
                                    visibility,
                                    maybe_append(attrs, extra_attrs));
            return Ok(Some(item));
        }
        if (self.check_keyword(keywords::Unsafe) &&
            self.look_ahead(1, |t| t.is_keyword(keywords::Impl))) ||
           (self.check_keyword(keywords::Default) &&
            self.look_ahead(1, |t| t.is_keyword(keywords::Unsafe)) &&
            self.look_ahead(2, |t| t.is_keyword(keywords::Impl)))
        {
            // IMPL ITEM
            let defaultness = self.parse_defaultness()?;
            self.expect_keyword(keywords::Unsafe)?;
            self.expect_keyword(keywords::Impl)?;
            let (ident,
                 item_,
                 extra_attrs) = self.parse_item_impl(ast::Unsafety::Unsafe, defaultness)?;
            let prev_span = self.prev_span;
            let item = self.mk_item(lo.to(prev_span),
                                    ident,
                                    item_,
                                    visibility,
                                    maybe_append(attrs, extra_attrs));
            return Ok(Some(item));
        }
        if self.check_keyword(keywords::Fn) {
            // FUNCTION ITEM
            self.bump();
            let fn_span = self.prev_span;
            let (ident, item_, extra_attrs) =
                self.parse_item_fn(Unsafety::Normal,
                                   respan(fn_span, Constness::NotConst),
                                   Abi::Rust)?;
            let prev_span = self.prev_span;
            let item = self.mk_item(lo.to(prev_span),
                                    ident,
                                    item_,
                                    visibility,
                                    maybe_append(attrs, extra_attrs));
            return Ok(Some(item));
        }
        if self.check_keyword(keywords::Unsafe)
            && self.look_ahead(1, |t| *t != token::OpenDelim(token::Brace)) {
            // UNSAFE FUNCTION ITEM
            self.bump();
            let abi = if self.eat_keyword(keywords::Extern) {
                self.parse_opt_abi()?.unwrap_or(Abi::C)
            } else {
                Abi::Rust
            };
            self.expect_keyword(keywords::Fn)?;
            let fn_span = self.prev_span;
            let (ident, item_, extra_attrs) =
                self.parse_item_fn(Unsafety::Unsafe,
                                   respan(fn_span, Constness::NotConst),
                                   abi)?;
            let prev_span = self.prev_span;
            let item = self.mk_item(lo.to(prev_span),
                                    ident,
                                    item_,
                                    visibility,
                                    maybe_append(attrs, extra_attrs));
            return Ok(Some(item));
        }
        if self.eat_keyword(keywords::Mod) {
            // MODULE ITEM
            let (ident, item_, extra_attrs) =
                self.parse_item_mod(&attrs[..])?;
            let prev_span = self.prev_span;
            let item = self.mk_item(lo.to(prev_span),
                                    ident,
                                    item_,
                                    visibility,
                                    maybe_append(attrs, extra_attrs));
            return Ok(Some(item));
        }
        if self.eat_keyword(keywords::Type) {
            // TYPE ITEM
            let (ident, item_, extra_attrs) = self.parse_item_type()?;
            let prev_span = self.prev_span;
            let item = self.mk_item(lo.to(prev_span),
                                    ident,
                                    item_,
                                    visibility,
                                    maybe_append(attrs, extra_attrs));
            return Ok(Some(item));
        }
        if self.eat_keyword(keywords::Enum) {
            // ENUM ITEM
            let (ident, item_, extra_attrs) = self.parse_item_enum()?;
            let prev_span = self.prev_span;
            let item = self.mk_item(lo.to(prev_span),
                                    ident,
                                    item_,
                                    visibility,
                                    maybe_append(attrs, extra_attrs));
            return Ok(Some(item));
        }
        if self.eat_keyword(keywords::Trait) {
            // TRAIT ITEM
            let (ident, item_, extra_attrs) =
                self.parse_item_trait(ast::Unsafety::Normal)?;
            let prev_span = self.prev_span;
            let item = self.mk_item(lo.to(prev_span),
                                    ident,
                                    item_,
                                    visibility,
                                    maybe_append(attrs, extra_attrs));
            return Ok(Some(item));
        }
        if (self.check_keyword(keywords::Impl)) ||
           (self.check_keyword(keywords::Default) &&
            self.look_ahead(1, |t| t.is_keyword(keywords::Impl)))
        {
            // IMPL ITEM
            let defaultness = self.parse_defaultness()?;
            self.expect_keyword(keywords::Impl)?;
            let (ident,
                 item_,
                 extra_attrs) = self.parse_item_impl(ast::Unsafety::Normal, defaultness)?;
            let prev_span = self.prev_span;
            let item = self.mk_item(lo.to(prev_span),
                                    ident,
                                    item_,
                                    visibility,
                                    maybe_append(attrs, extra_attrs));
            return Ok(Some(item));
        }
        if self.eat_keyword(keywords::Struct) {
            // STRUCT ITEM
            let (ident, item_, extra_attrs) = self.parse_item_struct()?;
            let prev_span = self.prev_span;
            let item = self.mk_item(lo.to(prev_span),
                                    ident,
                                    item_,
                                    visibility,
                                    maybe_append(attrs, extra_attrs));
            return Ok(Some(item));
        }
        if self.is_union_item() {
            // UNION ITEM
            self.bump();
            let (ident, item_, extra_attrs) = self.parse_item_union()?;
            let prev_span = self.prev_span;
            let item = self.mk_item(lo.to(prev_span),
                                    ident,
                                    item_,
                                    visibility,
                                    maybe_append(attrs, extra_attrs));
            return Ok(Some(item));
        }
        if let Some(macro_def) = self.eat_macro_def(&attrs, &visibility)? {
            return Ok(Some(macro_def));
        }

        self.parse_macro_use_or_failure(attrs,macros_allowed,attributes_allowed,lo,visibility)
    }

    /// Parse a foreign item.
    fn parse_foreign_item(&mut self) -> PResult<'a, Option<ForeignItem>> {
        let attrs = self.parse_outer_attributes()?;
        let lo = self.span;
        let visibility = self.parse_visibility(false)?;

        if self.check_keyword(keywords::Static) {
            // FOREIGN STATIC ITEM
            return Ok(Some(self.parse_item_foreign_static(visibility, lo, attrs)?));
        }
        if self.check_keyword(keywords::Fn) {
            // FOREIGN FUNCTION ITEM
            return Ok(Some(self.parse_item_foreign_fn(visibility, lo, attrs)?));
        }

        // FIXME #5668: this will occur for a macro invocation:
        match self.parse_macro_use_or_failure(attrs, true, false, lo, visibility)? {
            Some(item) => {
                return Err(self.span_fatal(item.span, "macros cannot expand to foreign items"));
            }
            None => Ok(None)
        }
    }

    /// This is the fall-through for parsing items.
    fn parse_macro_use_or_failure(
        &mut self,
        attrs: Vec<Attribute> ,
        macros_allowed: bool,
        attributes_allowed: bool,
        lo: Span,
        visibility: Visibility
    ) -> PResult<'a, Option<P<Item>>> {
        if macros_allowed && self.token.is_path_start() {
            // MACRO INVOCATION ITEM

            let prev_span = self.prev_span;
            self.complain_if_pub_macro(&visibility, prev_span);

            let mac_lo = self.span;

            // item macro.
            let pth = self.parse_path(PathStyle::Mod)?;
            self.expect(&token::Not)?;

            // a 'special' identifier (like what `macro_rules!` uses)
            // is optional. We should eventually unify invoc syntax
            // and remove this.
            let id = if self.token.is_ident() {
                self.parse_ident()?
            } else {
                keywords::Invalid.ident() // no special identifier
            };
            // eat a matched-delimiter token tree:
            let (delim, tts) = self.expect_delimited_token_tree()?;
            if delim != token::Brace {
                if !self.eat(&token::Semi) {
                    let prev_span = self.prev_span;
                    self.span_err(prev_span,
                                  "macros that expand to items must either \
                                   be surrounded with braces or followed by \
                                   a semicolon");
                }
            }

            let hi = self.prev_span;
            let mac = respan(mac_lo.to(hi), Mac_ { path: pth, tts: tts });
            let item = self.mk_item(lo.to(hi), id, ItemKind::Mac(mac), visibility, attrs);
            return Ok(Some(item));
        }

        // FAILURE TO PARSE ITEM
        match visibility {
            Visibility::Inherited => {}
            _ => {
                let prev_span = self.prev_span;
                return Err(self.span_fatal(prev_span, "unmatched visibility `pub`"));
            }
        }

        if !attributes_allowed && !attrs.is_empty() {
            self.expected_item_err(&attrs);
        }
        Ok(None)
    }

    pub fn parse_item(&mut self) -> PResult<'a, Option<P<Item>>> {
        let attrs = self.parse_outer_attributes()?;
        self.parse_item_(attrs, true, false)
    }

    fn parse_path_list_items(&mut self) -> PResult<'a, Vec<ast::PathListItem>> {
        self.parse_unspanned_seq(&token::OpenDelim(token::Brace),
                                 &token::CloseDelim(token::Brace),
                                 SeqSep::trailing_allowed(token::Comma), |this| {
            let lo = this.span;
            let ident = if this.eat_keyword(keywords::SelfValue) {
                keywords::SelfValue.ident()
            } else {
                this.parse_ident()?
            };
            let rename = this.parse_rename()?;
            let node = ast::PathListItem_ {
                name: ident,
                rename: rename,
                id: ast::DUMMY_NODE_ID
            };
            Ok(respan(lo.to(this.prev_span), node))
        })
    }

    /// `::{` or `::*`
    fn is_import_coupler(&mut self) -> bool {
        self.check(&token::ModSep) &&
            self.look_ahead(1, |t| *t == token::OpenDelim(token::Brace) ||
                                   *t == token::BinOp(token::Star))
    }

    /// Matches ViewPath:
    /// MOD_SEP? non_global_path
    /// MOD_SEP? non_global_path as IDENT
    /// MOD_SEP? non_global_path MOD_SEP STAR
    /// MOD_SEP? non_global_path MOD_SEP LBRACE item_seq RBRACE
    /// MOD_SEP? LBRACE item_seq RBRACE
    fn parse_view_path(&mut self) -> PResult<'a, P<ViewPath>> {
        let lo = self.span;
        if self.check(&token::OpenDelim(token::Brace)) || self.check(&token::BinOp(token::Star)) ||
           self.is_import_coupler() {
            // `{foo, bar}`, `::{foo, bar}`, `*`, or `::*`.
            self.eat(&token::ModSep);
            let prefix = ast::Path {
                segments: vec![PathSegment::crate_root()],
                span: lo.to(self.span),
            };
            let view_path_kind = if self.eat(&token::BinOp(token::Star)) {
                ViewPathGlob(prefix)
            } else {
                ViewPathList(prefix, self.parse_path_list_items()?)
            };
            Ok(P(respan(lo.to(self.span), view_path_kind)))
        } else {
            let prefix = self.parse_path(PathStyle::Mod)?.default_to_global();
            if self.is_import_coupler() {
                // `foo::bar::{a, b}` or `foo::bar::*`
                self.bump();
                if self.check(&token::BinOp(token::Star)) {
                    self.bump();
                    Ok(P(respan(lo.to(self.span), ViewPathGlob(prefix))))
                } else {
                    let items = self.parse_path_list_items()?;
                    Ok(P(respan(lo.to(self.span), ViewPathList(prefix, items))))
                }
            } else {
                // `foo::bar` or `foo::bar as baz`
                let rename = self.parse_rename()?.
                                  unwrap_or(prefix.segments.last().unwrap().identifier);
                Ok(P(respan(lo.to(self.prev_span), ViewPathSimple(rename, prefix))))
            }
        }
    }

    fn parse_rename(&mut self) -> PResult<'a, Option<Ident>> {
        if self.eat_keyword(keywords::As) {
            self.parse_ident().map(Some)
        } else {
            Ok(None)
        }
    }

    /// Parses a source module as a crate. This is the main
    /// entry point for the parser.
    pub fn parse_crate_mod(&mut self) -> PResult<'a, Crate> {
        let lo = self.span;
        Ok(ast::Crate {
            attrs: self.parse_inner_attributes()?,
            module: self.parse_mod_items(&token::Eof, lo)?,
            span: lo.to(self.span),
        })
    }

    pub fn parse_optional_str(&mut self) -> Option<(Symbol, ast::StrStyle, Option<ast::Name>)> {
        let ret = match self.token {
            token::Literal(token::Str_(s), suf) => (s, ast::StrStyle::Cooked, suf),
            token::Literal(token::StrRaw(s, n), suf) => (s, ast::StrStyle::Raw(n), suf),
            _ => return None
        };
        self.bump();
        Some(ret)
    }

    pub fn parse_str(&mut self) -> PResult<'a, (Symbol, StrStyle)> {
        match self.parse_optional_str() {
            Some((s, style, suf)) => {
                let sp = self.prev_span;
                self.expect_no_suffix(sp, "string literal", suf);
                Ok((s, style))
            }
            _ =>  Err(self.fatal("expected string literal"))
        }
    }
}