GH-43669: [Docs][Dev] Document archery --debug flag in section about …

…docker (#43935)

### Rationale for this change

This feature was added in #40129, but adding it to the docker page in the developer docs for better visibility.

* GitHub Issue: #43669

Authored-by: Joris Van den Bossche <jorisvandenbossche@gmail.com>
Signed-off-by: Joris Van den Bossche <jorisvandenbossche@gmail.com>

docs/source/developers/continuous_integration/docker.rst

@@ -156,6 +156,18 @@ The following example starts an interactive ``bash`` session in the container
 
  archery docker run ubuntu-cpp bash
 
+**Build the image with increased debugging output:**
+
+To enable additional logging output for debugging, pass the ``--debug`` flag
+to ``archery``.
+
+.. code:: bash
+
+ archery --debug docker run ubuntu-cpp
+
+In addition to enabling ``DEBUG``-level logging, this also translates to
+passing ``--progress=plain`` to docker(-compose) build command.
+
 Docker Volume Caches
 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~