ARROW-13834: [R][Documentation] Document the process of creating R bindings for compute kernels and rationale behind conventions

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+          - text: Writing Bindings
+            href: articles/developers/bindings.html
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r/vignettes/developers/bindings.Rmd

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+---
+title: "Writing Bindings"
+---
+
+```{r, include=FALSE}
+library(arrow, warn.conflicts = FALSE)
+library(dplyr, warn.conflicts = FALSE)
+```
+
+When writing bindings between C++ compute functions and R functions, the aim is 
+to expose the C++ functionality via existing R functions. The syntax and 
+functionality should match that of the existing R functions 
+(though with some exceptions) so that users are able to use existing tidyverse 
+or base R syntax, whilst taking advantage of the speed and functionality of the 
+underlying arrow package.
+
+# Implementing bindings to work within dplyr pipelines
+
+One of main ways in which users interact with arrow is via 
+[dplyr](https://dplyr.tidyverse.org/) syntax called on Arrow objects.  For 
+example, when a user calls `dplyr::mutate()` on an Arrow Tabular, 
+Dataset, or arrow data query object, the Arrow implementation of `mutate()` is 
+used and under the hood, translates the dplyr code into Arrow C++ code.
+
+When using `dplyr::mutate()` or `dplyr::filter()`, you may want to use functions
+from other packages.  The example below uses `stringr::str_detect()`.
+
+```{r}
+library(dplyr)
+library(stringr)
+starwars %>%
+  filter(str_detect(name, "Darth"))
+```
+This functionality has also been implemented in Arrow, e.g.:
+
+```{r}
+library(arrow)
+arrow_table(starwars) %>%
+  filter(str_detect(name, "Darth")) %>%
+  collect()
+```
+
+This is possible as a **binding** has been created between the call to the 
+stringr function `str_detect()` and the Arrow C++ code, here as a direct mapping
+to `match_substring_regex`.  You can see this for yourself by inspecting the 
+arrow data query object without retrieving the results via `collect()`.
+
+
+```{r}
+arrow_table(starwars) %>%
+  filter(str_detect(name, "Darth")) 
+```
+
+In the following sections, we'll walk through how to create a binding between an 
+R function and an Arrow C++ function.
+
+## Walkthrough
+
+Imagine you are writing the bindings for the C++ function 
+[`starts_with()`](https://arrow.apache.org/docs/cpp/compute.html#containment-tests) 
+and want to bind it to the (base) R function `startsWith()`.
+
+First, take a look at the docs for both of those functions.
+
+### Examining the R function
+
+Here are the docs for R's `startsWith()` (also available at https://stat.ethz.ch/R-manual/R-devel/library/base/html/startsWith.html)
+
+```{r, echo=FALSE, out.width="50%"}
+knitr::include_graphics("./startswithdocs.png")
+```
+
+It takes 2 parameters; `x` - the input, and `prefix` - the characters to check 
+if `x` starts with.
+
+### Examining the C++ function
+
+Now, go to 
+[the compute function documentation](https://arrow.apache.org/docs/cpp/compute.html#containment-tests)
+and look for the Arrow C++ library's `starts_with()` function:
+
+```{r, echo=FALSE, out.width="50%"}
+knitr::include_graphics("./starts_with_docs.png")
+```
+
+The docs show that `starts_with()` is a unary function, which means that it takes a
+single data input. The data input must be a string-like class, and the returned 
+value is boolean, both of which match up to R's `startsWith()`.
+
+There is an options class associated with `starts_with()` - called [`MatchSubstringOptions`](https://arrow.apache.org/docs/cpp/api/compute.html#_CPPv4N5arrow7compute21MatchSubstringOptionsE)
+- so let's take a look at that.
+
+```{r, echo=FALSE, out.width="50%"}
+knitr::include_graphics("./matchsubstringoptions.png")
+```
+
+Options classes allow the user to control the behaviour of the function.  In 
+this case, there are two possible options which can be supplied - `pattern` and 
+`ignore_case`, which are described in the docs shown above.
+
+### Comparing the R and C++ functions
+
+What conclusions can be drawn from what you've seen so far?
+
+Base R's `startsWith()` and Arrow's `starts_with()` operate on equivalent data 
+types, return equivalent data types, and as there are no options implemented in 
+R that Arrow doesn't have, this should be fairly simple to map without a great 
+deal of extra work.  
+
+As `starts_with()` has an options class associated with it, we'll need to make 
+sure that it's linked up with this in the R code.
+
+In case you're wondering about the difference between arguments in R and options
+in Arrow, in R, arguments to functions can include the actual data to be 
+analysed as well as options governing how the function works, whereas in the 
+C++ compute functions, the arguments are the data to be analysed and the 
+options are for specifying how exactly the function works.
+
+So let's get started.
+
+### Step 1 - add unit tests
+
+We recommend a test-driven-development approach - write failing tests first, 
+then check that they fail, and then write the code needed to make them pass.  
+Thinking up-front about the behavior which needs testing can make it easier to 
+reason about the code which needs writing later.
+
+Look up the R function that you want to bind the compute kernel to, and write a 
+set of unit tests that use a dplyr pipeline and `compare_dplyr_binding()` (and 
+perhaps even `compare_dplyr_error()` if necessary.  These functions compare the 
+output of the original function with the dplyr bindings and make sure they match.  
+We recommend looking at the documentation next to the source code for these 
+functions to get a better understanding of how they work.
+
+You should make sure you're testing all parameters of the R function in your 
+tests.
+
+Below is a possible example test for `startsWith()`.
+
+```{r, eval = FALSE}
+test_that("startsWith behaves identically in dplyr and Arrow", {
+  df <- tibble(x = c("Foo", "bar", "baz", "qux"))
+
+  compare_dplyr_binding(
+    .input %>%
+        filter(startsWith(x, "b")) %>%
+        collect(),
+    df
+  )
+
+})
+```
+
+### Step 2 - hook up the compute function with options class if necessary
+
+If the C++ compute function can have options specified, make sure that the 
+function is linked with its options class in `make_compute_options()` in the 
+file `arrow/r/src/compute.cpp`.  You can find out if a compute function requires
+options by looking in the docs here: https://arrow.apache.org/docs/cpp/compute.html
+
+In the case of `starts_with()`, it looks something like this:
+
+```cpp
+  if (func_name == "starts_with") {
+    using Options = arrow::compute::MatchSubstringOptions;
+    bool ignore_case = false;
+    if (!Rf_isNull(options["ignore_case"])) {
+      ignore_case = cpp11::as_cpp<bool>(options["ignore_case"]);
+    }
+    return std::make_shared<Options>(cpp11::as_cpp<std::string>(options["pattern"]),
+                                     ignore_case);
+  }
+```
+
+You can usually copy and paste from a similar existing example.  In this case, 
+as the option `ignore_case` doesn't map to any parameters of `startsWith()`, we 
+give it a default value of `false` but if it's been set, use the set value 
+instead.  As the `pattern` argument maps directly to `prefix` in `startsWith()`
+we can pass it straight through.
+
+### Step 3 - Map the R function to the C++ kernel
+
+The next task is writing the code which binds the R function to the C++ kernel.
+
+#### Step 3a - see if direct mapping is appropriate
+Compare the C++ function and R function.  If they are simple functions with no 
+options, it might be possible to directly map between the C++ and R in 
+`unary_function_map`, in the case of compute functions that operate on single 
+columns of data, or `binary_function_map` for those which operate on 2 columns 
+of data. 
+
+As `startsWith()` requires options, direct mapping is not appropriate.
+
+#### Step 3b - If direct mapping not possible, try a modified implementation
+If the function cannot be mapped directly, some extra work may be needed to 
+ensure that calling the arrow version of the function results in the same result
+as calling the R version of the function.  In this case, the function will need 
+adding to the `nse_funcs` list in `arrow/r/R/dplyr-functions.R`.  Here is how 
+this might look for `startsWith()`:
+
+```{r, eval = FALSE}
+nse_funcs$startsWith <- function(x, prefix) {
+  Expression$create(
+    "starts_with",
+    x,
+    options = list(pattern = prefix)
+  )
+}
+```
+
+Hint:  you can use `call_function()` to call a compute function directly from R.
+This might be useful if you want to experiment with a compute function while 
+you're writing bindings for it, e.g.
+
+```{r}
+call_function(
+  "starts_with",
+  Array$create(c("Apache", "Arrow", "R", "package")),
+  options = list(pattern = "A")
+)
+```
+
+### Step 4 - Run your tests.
+
+If they pass, you're done! Submit a PR.  If you've modified the C++ code in the 
+R package (for example, when hooking up a binding to its options class), you 
+should make sure to run `arrow/r/lint.sh` to lint the code.