Implicit conversions

docs/design/expressions/README.md

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+# Expressions
+
+<!--
+Part of the Carbon Language project, under the Apache License v2.0 with LLVM
+Exceptions. See /LICENSE for license information.
+SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0 WITH LLVM-exception
+-->
+
+<!-- toc -->
+
+## Table of contents
+
+-   [Overview](#overview)
+-   [Implicit conversions](#implicit-conversions)
+
+<!-- tocstop -->
+
+## Overview
+
+Expressions are the portions of Carbon syntax that produce values. Because types
+in Carbon are values, this includes anywhere that a type is specified.
+
+```
+fn Foo(a: i32*) -> i32 {
+  return *a;
+}
+```
+
+Here, the parameter type `i32*`, the return type `i32`, and the operand `*a` of
+the `return` statement are all expressions.
+
+## Implicit conversions
+
+When an expression appears in a context in which an expression of a specific
+type is expected, [implicit conversions](implicit_conversions.md) are applied to
+convert the expression to the target type.
+
+```
+fn Bar(n: i32);
+fn Baz(n: i64) {
+  // OK, same as Bar(n as i32)
+  Bar(n);
+}
+```

docs/design/expressions/implicit_conversions.md

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+# Implicit conversions
+
+<!--
+Part of the Carbon Language project, under the Apache License v2.0 with LLVM
+Exceptions. See /LICENSE for license information.
+SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0 WITH LLVM-exception
+-->
+
+<!-- toc -->
+
+## Table of contents
+
+-   [Overview](#overview)
+-   [Properties of implicit conversions](#properties-of-implicit-conversions)
+    -   [Lossless](#lossless)
+    -   [Semantics-preserving](#semantics-preserving)
+    -   [Examples](#examples)
+-   [Built-in types](#built-in-types)
+    -   [Data types](#data-types)
+    -   [Equivalent types](#equivalent-types)
+    -   [Pointer conversions](#pointer-conversions)
+        -   [Pointer conversion examples](#pointer-conversion-examples)
+    -   [Type-of-types](#type-of-types)
+-   [Semantics](#semantics)
+-   [Extensibility](#extensibility)
+-   [Alternatives considered](#alternatives-considered)
+-   [References](#references)
+
+<!-- tocstop -->
+
+## Overview
+
+When an expression appears in a context in which an expression of a specific
+type is expected, the expression is implicitly converted to that type if
+possible.
+
+For [built-in types](#built-in-types), implicit conversions are permitted when:
+
+-   The conversion is [_lossless_](#lossless): every possible value for the
+    source expression converts to a distinct value in the target type.
+-   The conversion is [_semantics-preserving_](#semantics-preserving):
+    corresponding values in the source and destination type have the same
+    abstract meaning.
+
+These rules aim to ensure that implicit conversions are unsurprising: the value
+that is provided as the operand of an operation should match how that operation
+interprets the value, because the identity and abstract meaning of the value are
+preserved by any implicit conversions that are applied.
+
+It is possible for user-defined types to [extend](#extensibility) the set of
+valid implicit conversions. Such extensions are expected to also follow these
+rules.
+
+## Properties of implicit conversions
+
+### Lossless
+
+We expect implicit conversion to never lose information: if two values are
+distinguishable before the conversion, they should generally be distinguishable
+after the conversion. A conversion in the opposite direction should be possible,
+but such a conversion is not expected to be provided in general, and might be
+computationally expensive.
+
+Because an implicit conversion is converting from a narrower type to a wider
+type, implicit conversions do not necessarily preserve invariants of the source
+type.
+
+### Semantics-preserving
+
+We expect implicit conversions to preserve the meaning of converted values. The
+assessment of this criterion will necessarily be subjective, because the
+meanings of values generally live in the mind of the programmer rather than in
+the program text. However, the semantic interpretation is expected to be
+consistent from one conversion to another, so we can provide a test: if multiple
+paths of implicit conversions from a type `A` to a type `B` exist, and the same
+value of type `A` would convert to different values of type `B` along different
+paths, then at least one of those conversions must not be semantics-preserving.
+
+A semantics-preserving conversion does not necessarily preserve the meaning of
+particular syntax when applied to the value. The same syntax may map to
+different operations in the new type. For example, division may mean different
+things in integer and floating-point types, and member access may find different
+members in a derived class pointer versus in a base class pointer.
+
+### Examples
+
+Conversion from `i32` to `Vector(int)` by forming a vector of N zeroes is
+lossless but not semantics-preserving.
+
+Conversion from `i32` to `f32` by rounding to the nearest representable value is
+semantics-preserving but not lossless.
+
+Conversion from `String` to `StringView` is lossless, because we can compute the
+`String` value from the `StringView` value, and semantics-preserving because the
+string value denoted is the same. Conversion in the other direction may or may
+not be semantics-preserving depending on whether we consider the address to be a
+salient part of a `StringView`'s value.
+
+## Built-in types
+
+### Data types
+
+The following implicit numeric conversions are available:
+
+-   `iN` or `uN` -> `iM` if `M` > `N`
+-   `uN` -> `uM` if `M` > `N`
+-   `fN` -> `fM` if `M` > `N`
+-   `iN` or `uN` -> `fM` if every value of type `iN` or `uN` can be represeted
+    in `fM`:
+    -   `i12` or `u11` (or smaller) -> `f16`
+    -   `i25` or `u24` (or smaller) -> `f32`
+    -   `i54` or `u53` (or smaller) -> `f64`
+    -   `i65` or `u64` (or smaller) -> `f80` (x86 only)
+    -   `i114` or `u113` (or smaller) -> `f128` (if available)
+    -   `i238` or `u237` (or smaller) -> `f256` (if available)
+
+In each case, the numerical value is the same before and after the conversion.
+An integer zero is translated into a floating-point positive zero.
+
+An integer constant can be implicitly converted to any type `iM`, `uM`, or `fM`
+in which that value can be exactly represented. A floating-point constant can be
+implicitly converted to any type `fM` in which that value is between the least
+representable finite value and the greatest representable finite value
+(inclusive), and does not fall exactly half-way between two representable
+values, and converts to the nearest representable finite value.
+
+The above conversions are also precisely those that C++ considers non-narrowing,
+except:
+
+-   Carbon also permits integer to floating-point conversions in more cases. The
+    most important of these is that Carbon permits `i32` to be implicitly
+    converted to `f64`. Lossy conversions, such as from `i32` to `f32`, are not
+    permitted.
+
+-   What Carbon considers to be an integer constant or floating-point constant
+    may differ from what C++ considers to be a constant expression.
+
+    **Note:** We have not yet decided what will qualify as a constant in this
+    context, but it will include at least integer and floating-point literals,
+    with optional enclosing parentheses. It is possible that such constants will
+    have singleton types; see issue
+    [#508](https://github.com/carbon-language/carbon-lang/issues/508).
+
+### Equivalent types
+
+The following conversion is available:
+
+-   `T` -> `U` if `T` is equivalent to `U`
+
+Two types are equivalent if they can be used interchangeably, implicitly: they
+have the same set of values with the same meaning and the same representation,
+with the same set of capabilities and constraints, where the only difference is
+how the type interprets operations on values of that type.
+
+`T` is equivalent to `U` if:
+
+-   `T` is the same type as `U`, or
+-   `T` is the facet type `U as SomeInterface`, or
+-   `U` is the facet type `T as SomeInterface`, or
+-   `T` is `A*`, `U` is `B*`, and `A` is equivalent to `B`, or
+-   for some type `V`, `T` is equivalent to `V` and `V` is equivalent to `U`.
+
+**Note:** More type equivalence rules are expected to be added over time.
+
+A prerequisite for types being equivalent is that they are
+[compatible](../generics/terminology.md#compatible-types), and in particular
+that they have the same set of values and the same representation for those
+values. However, types being compatible does not imply that an implicit
+conversion, or even an explicit cast, between those types is necessarily valid.
+This is because the type of a value models not only the representation of the
+value but also the capabilities that a user of the value has to interact with
+the value. Two compatible types may expose different capabilities, such as the
+capability to mutate the object or to access its implementation details, and
+conversions between such types may require an explicit cast if the conversion is
+possible at all.
+
+### Pointer conversions
+
+The following pointer conversion is available:
+
+-   `T*` -> `U*` if `T` is a subtype of `U`.
+
+`T` is a subtype of `U` if:
+
+-   `T` is equivalent to `U`, as described above, or
+-   `T` is equivalent to a class derived from a class equivalent to `U`.
+
+**Note:** More type subtyping rules are expected to be added over time.
+
+`T*` is not necessarily a subtype of `U*` even if `T` is a subtype of `U`. For
+example, we can convert `Derived*` to `Base*`, but cannot convert `Derived**` to
+`Base**` because that would allow storing a `Derived2*` into a `Derived*`:
+
+```
+abstract class Base {}
+class Derived extends Base {}
+class Derived2 extends Base {}
+var d2: Derived2 = {};
+var p: Derived*;
+var q: Derived2* = &d2;
+var r: Base** = &p;
+// Bad: would store q to p.
+*r = q;
+```
+
+**Note:** If we add `const` qualification, we could treat `const T*` as a
+subtype of `const U*` if `T` is a subtype of `U`, and could treat `T` as a
+subtype of `const T`.
+
+#### Pointer conversion examples
+
+With these classes:
+
+```
+base class C;
+let F: auto = C as Hashable;
+class D extends C;
+```
+
+These implicit pointer conversions are permitted:
+
+-   `D*` -> `C*`: `D` is a subtype of `C`
+-   `F*` -> `C*`: `F` is equivalent to `C`, so `F` is a subtype of `C`
+-   `C*` -> `F*`: `C` is equivalent to `F`, so `C` is a subtype of `F`
+-   `F**` -> `C**`: `F` is equivalent to `C`, so `F*` is equivalent to `C*`, so
+    `F*` is a subtype of `C*`
+-   `D*` -> `F*`: `D` is derived from `C` and `C` is equivalent to `D`, so `D`
+    is a subtype of `F`
+
+These implicit pointer conversions are disallowed:
+
+-   `C*` -> `D*`: `C` is not a subtype of `D`
+-   `D**` -> `C**`: `D*` is not a subtype of `C*`
+
+Note that "equivalent to" means we can freely convert back and forwards; the
+difference in the types is just changing which operations are surfaced, not
+changing anything about the interpretation or switching between different
+abstractions. In contrast, "subtype of" permits conversion from a more specific
+type to a more general type, so the reverse conversion is not necessarily valid.
+
+### Type-of-types
+
+A type `T` with [type-of-type](../generics/terminology.md#type-of-type) `TT1`
+can be implicitly converted to the type-of-type `TT2` if `T`
+[satisfies the requirements](../generics/details.md#subtyping-between-type-of-types)
+of `TT2`.
+
+## Semantics
+
+An implicit conversion of an expression `E` of type `T` to type `U`, when
+permitted, always has the same meaning as the explicit cast expression `E as U`.
+Moreover, such an implicit conversion is expected to exactly preserve the value.
+For example, `(E as U) as T`, if valid, should be expected to result in the same
+value as produced by `E`.
+
+**Note:** The explicit cast expression syntax has not yet been decided. The use
+of `E as T` in this document is provisional.
+
+## Extensibility
+
+Implicit conversions can be defined for user-defined types such as
+[classes](../classes.md) by implementing the `ImplicitAs` interface:
+
+```
+interface As(Dest:! Type) {
+  fn Convert[me: Self]() -> Dest;
+}
+interface ImplicitAs(Dest:! Type) extends As(Dest) {}
+```
+
+When attempting to implicitly convert an expression `x` to type `U`, the
+expression is rewritten to `x.(ImplicitAs(U).Convert)()`.
+
+**Note:** The `As` interface is intended to be used as the implementation
+vehicle for explicit casts: `x as U` would be rewritten as
+`x.(As(U).Convert)()`. However, the explicit cast expression syntax has not yet
+been decided, so this rewrite is provisional.
+
+Note that implicit conversions are not transitive. Even if an
+`impl A as ImplicitAs(B)` and an `impl B as ImplicitAs(C)` are both provided, an
+expression of type `A` cannot be implicitly converted to type `C`. Allowing
+transitivity would introduce the risk of ambiguity issues as code evolves and
+would in general require a search of a potentially unbounded set of intermediate
+types.
+
+## Alternatives considered
+
+-   [Provide lossy and non-semantics-preserving implicit conversions from C++](/docs/proposals/p0820.md#c-conversions)
+-   [Provide no implicit conversions](/docs/proposals/p0820.md#no-conversions)
+-   [Provide no extensibility](/docs/proposals/p0820.md#no-extensibility)
+-   [Apply implicit conversions transitively](/docs/proposals/p0820.md#transitivity)
+
+## References
+
+-   [Implicit conversions in C++](https://en.cppreference.com/w/cpp/language/implicit_conversion)
+-   Proposal
+    [#820: implicit conversions](https://github.com/carbon-language/carbon-lang/pull/820).