Tavily Python Wrapper

The Tavily Python wrapper allows for easy interaction with the Tavily API, offering the full range of our search and extract functionalities directly from your Python programs. Easily integrate smart search and content extraction capabilities into your applications, harnessing Tavily's powerful search and extract features.

Installing

pip install tavily-python

Tavily Search

Usage

Below are some code snippets that show you how to interact with our search API. The different steps and components of this code are explained in more detail in the API Methods section further down.

Getting and printing the full Search API response

from tavily import TavilyClient

# Step 1. Instantiating your TavilyClient
tavily_client = TavilyClient(api_key="tvly-YOUR_API_KEY")

# Step 2. Executing a simple search query
response = tavily_client.search("Who is Leo Messi?")

# Step 3. That's it! You've done a Tavily Search!
print(response)

This is equivalent to directly querying our REST API.

Generating context for a RAG Application

from tavily import TavilyClient

# Step 1. Instantiating your TavilyClient
tavily_client = TavilyClient(api_key="tvly-YOUR_API_KEY")

# Step 2. Executing a context search query
context = tavily_client.get_search_context(query="What happened during the Burning Man floods?")

# Step 3. That's it! You now have a context string that you can feed directly into your RAG Application
print(context)

This is how you can generate precise and fact-based context for your RAG application in one line of code.

Getting a quick answer to a question

from tavily import TavilyClient

# Step 1. Instantiating your TavilyClient
tavily_client = TavilyClient(api_key="tvly-YOUR_API_KEY")

# Step 2. Executing a Q&A search query
answer = tavily_client.qna_search(query="Who is Leo Messi?")

# Step 3. That's it! Your question has been answered!
print(answer)

This is how you get accurate and concise answers to questions, in one line of code. Perfect for usage by LLMs!

API Methods

Client

NEW! We have released a Beta of our asynchronous Tavily client. It is available in version 0.3.4 of our Python package. The asynchronous client's interface is identical to the synchronous client's, the only difference being that all methods are asynchronous. Try it now with the AsyncTavilyClient class!

The TavilyClient class is the entry point to interacting with the Tavily API. Kickstart your journey by instantiating it with your API key. If you want to use Tavily asynchronously, you will need to instantiate an AsyncTavilyClient instead.

Once you do so, you're ready to search the Web in one line of code! All you need is to pass a str as a query to one of our methods (detailed below) and you'll start searching!

Methods

• search(query, **kwargs)

  • Performs a Tavily Search query and returns the response as a well-structured dict.
  • Additional parameters can be provided as keyword arguments (detailed below). The keyword arguments supported by this method are: search_depth, topic, days, max_results, include_domains, exclude_domains, include_answer, include_raw_content, include_images, include_image_descriptions.
  • Returns a dict with all related response fields. If you decide to use the asynchronous client, returns a coroutine resolving to that dict. The details of the exact response format are given in the Search Responses section further down.

• get_search_context(query, **kwargs)

  • Performs a Tavily Search query and returns a str of content and sources within the provided token limit. It's useful for getting only related content from retrieved websites without having to deal with context extraction and token management.
  • The core parameter for this function is max_tokens, an int. It defaults to 4000. It is provided as a keyword argument.
  • Additional parameters can be provided as keyword arguments (detailed below). The keyword arguments supported by this method are: search_depth, topic, days, max_results, include_domains, exclude_domains.
  • Returns a str containing the content and sources of the results. If you decide to use the asynchronous client, returns a coroutine resolving to that str.

• qna_search(query, **kwargs)

  • Performs a search and returns a string containing an answer to the original query. This is optimal to be used as a tool for AI agents.
  • Additional parameters can be provided as keyword arguments (detailed below). The keyword arguments supported by this method are: search_depth (defaults to "advanced"), topic, days, max_results, include_domains, exclude_domains.
  • Returns a str containing a short answer to the search query. If you decide to use the asynchronous client, returns a coroutine resolving to that str.

Keyword Arguments (optional)

• search_depth: str - The depth of the search. It can be "basic" or "advanced". Default is "basic" unless specified otherwise in a given method.

• topic: str - The category of the search. This will determine which of our agents will be used for the search. Currently, only "general" and "news" are supported. Default is "general".

• days: int (optional) - The number of days back from the current date to include in the search results. This specifies the time frame of data to be retrieved. Please note that this feature is only available when using the "news" search topic. Default is 3.

• max_results: int - The maximum number of search results to return. Default is 5.

• include_images: bool - Include a list of query-related images in the response. Default is False.

• include_image_descriptions: bool - When include_images is set to True, this option adds descriptive text for each image. Default is False.

• include_answer: bool - Include a short answer to original query. Default is False.

• include_raw_content: bool - Include the cleaned and parsed HTML content of each search result. Default is False.

• include_domains: list[str] - A list of domains to specifically include in the search results. Default is None, which includes all domains.

• exclude_domains: list[str] - A list of domains to specifically exclude from the search results. Default is None, which doesn't exclude any domains.

Search Responses

• answer: str- The answer to your search query. This will be None unless include_answer is set to True.

• query: str - Your search query.

• response_time: float - Your search result response time.

• images: list[str | dict] - A list of query-related image URLs. If include_image_descriptions is set to True each entry will be a dictionary with url and description

• results: list - A list of sorted search results ranked by relevancy. Each result is in the following format:

  • title: str - The title of the search result URL.
  • url: str - The URL of the search result.
  • content: str - The most query related content from the scraped URL. We use proprietary AI and algorithms to extract only the most relevant content from each URL, to optimize for context quality and size.
  • raw_content: str - The parsed and cleaned HTML of the site. For now includes parsed text only. Please note that this will be None unless include_raw_content is set to True.
  • score: float - The relevance score of the search result.
  • published_date: str (optional) - The publication date of the source. This is only available if you are using "news" as your search topic.

When you send a search query, the response dict you receive will be in the following format:

response = {
  "query": "The query provided in the request",
  "answer": "A short answer to the query",  # This will be None if include_answer is set to False in the request
  "follow_up_questions": None,  # This feature is still in development
  "images": [ 
    {
      "url": "Image 1 URL",
      "description": "Image 1 Description",  
    },
    {
      "url": "Image 2 URL",
      "description": "Image 2 Description",
    },
    {
      "url": "Image 3 URL",
      "description": "Image 3 Description",
    },
    {
      "url": "Image 4 URL",
      "description": "Image 4 Description",
    },
    {
      "url": "Image 5 URL",
      "description": "Image 5 Description",
    }
  ],  # This will be a list of string URLs if `include_images` is True and `include_image_descriptions` is False, or an empty list if both set to False.
  "results": [
    {
      "title": "Source 1 Title",
      "url": "Source 1 URL",
      "content": "Source 1 Content",
      "score": 0.99  # This is the "relevancy" score of the source. It ranges from 0 to 1.
    },
    {
      "title": "Source 2 Title",
      "url": "Source 2 URL",
      "content": "Source 2 Content",
      "score": 0.97
    }
  ],  # This list will have max_results elements
  "response_time": 1.09 # This will be your search response time
}

Tavily Extract

Usage

Below are some code snippets that demonstrate how to interact with our Extract API. Each step and component of this code is explained in greater detail in the API Methods section below.

Extracting Raw Content from Multiple URLs using Tavily Extract API

from tavily import TavilyClient

# Step 1. Instantiating your TavilyClient
tavily_client = TavilyClient(api_key="tvly-YOUR_API_KEY")

# Step 2. Defining the list of URLs to extract content from
urls = [
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_learning",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_science",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_computing",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change"
] # You can provide up to 20 URLs simultaneously

# Step 3. Executing the extract request
response = tavily_client.extract(urls=urls)

# Step 4. Printing the extracted raw content
for result in response["results"]:
    print(f"URL: {result['url']}")
    print(f"Raw Content: {result['raw_content']}\n")

# Note that URLs that could not be extracted will be stored in response["failed_results"]

API Methods

Client

The TavilyClient class is your entry point to interacting with the Tavily API. Kickstart your journey by instantiating it with your API key. Once you do, you're ready to extract the web in just one line of code! Simply pass a str for a single URL or a list of str for multiple URLs to the extract method (detailed below), and you'll start scraping!

Asynchronous Client

If you want to use Tavily asynchronously, you will need to instantiate an AsyncTavilyClient instead. The asynchronous client's interface is identical to the synchronous client's, the only difference being that all methods are asynchronous.

Methods

• extract(urls, **kwargs)
  • Extracts the raw content from a given list of URLs (or a single URL string) and returns the response as a well-structured dict.
  • Returns a dict with all related response fields. If using the asynchronous client, it returns a coroutine that resolves to this dict. For details on the response format, see the Extract Responses section.

Extract Responses

• results: list: A list of extracted content from the provided URLs. Each result is in the following format:

  • url: str - The URL of the webpage from which content was extracted.
  • raw_content- str - The raw content extracted from the provided URL. ``

• failed_results: list - A list of URLs that could not be processed, if any. Each result is in the following format:

  • url: str - The URL that failed to be processed.
  • error: str - An error message describing why the URL could not be processed.

• response_time: float - Your search result response time.

When you send a URL or a list of URLs, the response dict you receive will be in the following format:

{
    "results": [
        {
            "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence",
            "raw_content": "Contents\nArtificial intelligence\nArtificial intelligence (AI) is the intelligence of machines or software, as opposed to the intelligence of humans or animals. It is a field of study in computer science that develops and studies intelligent machines. \"AI\" may also refer to the machines themselves.\nAI technology is widely used throughout industry, government and science. Some high-profile applications are: advanced web search engines (e.g., Google Search), recommendation systems (used by YouTube, Amazon, and Netflix), understanding human speech (such as Siri and Alexa), self-driving cars (e.g., Waymo), generative or creative tools (ChatGPT and AI art), and competing at the highest level in strategy games (such as chess and Go).[1]\nArtificial intelligence was founded as an academic discipline in 1956.[2] The field went through multiple cycles of optimism[3][4] followed by disappointment and loss of funding,[5][6] but after 2012, when deep learning surpassed all previous AI techniques,[7] there was a vast increase in funding and interest.\nThe various sub-fields of AI research are centered around particular goals and the use of particular tools. The traditional goals of AI research include reasoning, knowledge representation, planning, learning, natural language processing, perception, and support for robotics.[a] General intelligence (the ability to solve an arbitrary problem) is among the field's long-term goals.[8]\nTo solve these problems, AI researchers have adapted and integrated a wide range of problem-solving techniques, including search and mathematical optimization, formal logic, artificial neural networks, and methods based on statistics, operations research, and economics.[b] AI also draws upon psychology, linguistics, philosophy, neuroscience and many other fields.[9]\nGoals\nThe general problem of simulating (or creating) intelligence has been broken down into sub-problems. These consist of particular traits or capabilities that researchers expect an intelligent system to display. The traits described below have received the most attention and cover the scope of AI research.[a]\nReasoning, problem-solving\nEarly researchers developed algorithms that imitated step-by-step reasoning that humans use when they solve puzzles or make logical deductions.[10] By the late 1980s and 1990s, methods were developed for dealing with uncertain or incomplete information, employing concepts from probability and economics.[11]\nMany of these algorithms are insufficient for solving large reasoning problems because they experience a \"combinatorial explosion\": they became exponentially slower as the problems grew larger.[12]\nEven humans rarely use the step-by-step deduction that early AI research could model. They solve most of their problems using fast, intuitive judgments.[13]\nAccurate and efficient reasoning is an unsolved problem.\nKnowledge representation\nKnowledge representation and knowledge engineering[14] allow AI programs to answer questions intelligently and make deductions about real-world facts. Formal knowledge representations are used in content-based indexing and retrieval,[15] scene interpretation,[16] clinical decision support,[17] knowledge discovery (mining \"interesting\" and actionable inferences from large databases),[18] and other areas.[19]\nA knowledge base is a body of knowledge represented in a form that can be used by a program. An ontology is the set of objects, relations, concepts, and properties used by a particular domain of knowledge.[20] Knowledge bases need to represent things such as:\nobjects, properties, categories and relations between objects;\n[21]\nsituations, events, states and time;[22]\ncauses and effects;[23]\nknowledge about knowledge (what we know about what other people know);[24]\ndefault reasoning (things that humans assume are true until they are told differently and will remain true even when other facts are changing);[25] and many other aspects and domains of knowledge.\nAmong the most difficult problems in KR are: the breadth of commonsense knowledge (the set of atomic facts that the average person knows is enormous);[26] and the sub-symbolic form of most commonsense knowledge (much of what people know is not represented as \"facts\" or \"statements\" that they could express verbally).[13]\nKnowledge acquisition is the difficult problem of obtaining knowledge for AI applications.[c] Modern AI gathers knowledge by \"scraping\" the internet (including Wikipedia). The knowledge itself was collected by the volunteers and professionals who published the information (who may or may not have agreed to provide their work to AI companies).[29] This \"crowd sourced\" technique does not guarantee that the knowledge is correct or reliable. The knowledge of Large Language Models (such as ChatGPT) is highly unreliable -- it generates misinformation and falsehoods (known as \"hallucinations\"). Providing accurate knowledge for these modern AI applications is an unsolved problem.\nPlanning and decision making\nAn \"agent\" is anything that perceives and takes actions in the world. A rational agent has goals or preferences and takes actions to make them happen.[d][30]\nIn automated planning, the agent has a specific goal.[31] In automated decision making, the agent has preferences – there are some situations it would prefer to be in, and some situations it is trying to avoid. The decision making agent assigns a number to each situation (called the \"utility\") that measures how much the agent prefers it. For each possible action, it can calculate the \"expected utility\": the utility of all possible outcomes of the action, weighted by the probability that the outcome will occur. It can then choose the action with the maximum expected utility.[32]\nIn classical planning, the agent knows exactly what the effect of any action will be.[33]\nIn most real-world problems, however, the agent may not be certain about the situation they are in (it is \"unknown\" or \"unobservable\") and it may not know for certain what will happen after each possible action (it is not \"deterministic\"). It must choose an action by making a probabilistic guess and then reassess the situation to see if the action worked.[34]\nIn some problems, the agent's preferences may be uncertain, especially if there are other agents or humans involved. These can be learned (e.g., with inverse reinforcement learning) or the agent can seek information to improve its preferences.[35]\nInformation value theory can be used to weigh the value of exploratory or experimental actions.[36]\nThe space of possible future actions and situations is typically intractably large, so the agents must take actions and evaluate situations while being uncertain what the outcome will be.\nA Markov decision process has a transition model that describes the probability that a particular action will change the state in a particular way, and a reward function that supplies the utility of each state and the cost of each action. A policy associates a decision with each possible state. The policy could be calculated (e.g. by iteration), be heuristic, or it can be learned.[37]\nGame theory describes rational behavior of multiple interacting agents, and is used in AI programs that make decisions that involve other agents.[38]\nLearning\nMachine learning is the study of programs that can improve their performance on a given task automatically.[39]\nIt has been a part of AI from the beginning.[e]\nThere are several kinds of machine learning. Unsupervised learning analyzes a stream of data and finds patterns and makes predictions without any other guidance.[42]\nSupervised learning requires a human to label the input data first, and comes in two main varieties: classification (where the program must learn to predict what category the input belongs in) and regression (where the program must deduce a numeric function based on numeric input).[43]\nIn reinforcement learning the agent is rewarded for good responses and punished for bad ones. The agent learns to choose responses that are classified as \"good\".[44]\nTransfer learning is when the knowledge gained from one problem is applied to a new problem.[45] Deep learning is a type of machine learning that runs inputs through biologically inspired artificial neural networks for all of these types of learning.[46]\nComputational learning theory can assess learners by computational complexity, by sample complexity (how much data is required), or by other notions of optimization.[47]\nNatural language processing\nNatural language processing (NLP)[48] allows programs to read, write and communicate in human languages such as English.\nSpecific problems include speech recognition, speech synthesis, machine translation, information extraction, information retrieval and question answering.[49]\nEarly work, based on Noam Chomsky's generative grammar and semantic networks, had difficulty with word-sense disambiguation[f]\nunless restricted to small domains called \"micro-worlds\" (due to the common sense knowledge problem[26]).\nModern deep learning techniques for NLP include word embedding (representing words, typically as vectors encoding their meaning),[50] transformers (a deep learning architecture using an attention mechanism),[51] and others.[52] In 2019, generative pre-trained transformer (or \"GPT\") language models began to generate coherent text,[53][54] and by 2023 these models were able to get human-level scores on the bar exam, SAT, GRE, and many other real-world applications.[55]\nPerception\nMachine perception is the ability to use input from sensors (such as cameras, microphones, wireless signals, active lidar, sonar, radar, and tactile sensors) to deduce aspects of the world. Computer vision is the ability to analyze visual input.[56]\nThe field includes speech recognition,[57]\nimage classification,[58]\nfacial recognition, object recognition,[59]\nand robotic perception.[60]\nSocial intelligence\nAffective computing is an interdisciplinary umbrella that comprises systems that recognize, interpret, process or simulate human feeling, emotion and mood.[62]\nFor example, some virtual assistants are programmed to speak conversationally or even to banter humorously; it makes them appear more sensitive to the emotional dynamics of human interaction, or to otherwise facilitate human–computer interaction.\nHowever, this tends to give naïve users an unrealistic conception of how intelligent existing computer agents actually are.[63] Moderate successes related to affective computing include textual sentiment analysis and, more recently, multimodal sentiment analysis, wherein AI classifies the affects displayed by a videotaped subject.[64]\nGeneral intelligence\nA machine with artificial general intelligence should be able to solve a wide variety of problems with breadth and versatility similar to human intelligence.[8]\nTools\nAI research uses a wide variety of tools to accomplish the goals above.[b]\nSearch and optimization\nAI can solve many problems by intelligently searching through many possible solutions.[65] There are two very different kinds of search used in AI: state space search and local search.\nState space search searches through a tree of possible states to try to find a goal state.[66]\nFor example, Planning algorithms search through trees of goals and subgoals, attempting to find a path to a target goal, a process called means-ends analysis.[67]\nSimple exhaustive searches[68]\nare rarely sufficient for most real-world problems: the search space (the number of places to search) quickly grows to astronomical numbers. The result is a search that is too slow or never completes.[12]\n\"Heuristics\" or \"rules of thumb\" can help to prioritize choices that are more likely to reach a goal.[69]\nAdversarial search is used for game-playing programs, such as chess or Go. It searches through a tree of possible moves and counter-moves, looking for a winning position.[70]\nLocal search uses mathematical optimization to find a numeric solution to a problem. It begins with some form of a guess and then refines the guess incrementally until no more refinements can be made. These algorithms can be visualized as blind hill climbing: we begin the search at a random point on the landscape, and then, by jumps or steps, we keep moving our guess uphill, until we reach the top. This process is called stochastic gradient descent.[71]\nEvolutionary computation uses a form of optimization search. For example, they may begin with a population of organisms (the guesses) and then allow them to mutate and recombine, selecting only the fittest to survive each generation (refining the guesses).[72]\nDistributed search processes can coordinate via swarm intelligence algorithms. Two popular swarm algorithms used in search are particle swarm optimization (inspired by bird flocking) and ant colony optimization (inspired by ant trails).[73]\nNeural networks and statistical classifiers (discussed below), also use a form of local search, where the \"landscape\" to be searched is formed by learning.\nLogic\nFormal Logic is used for reasoning and knowledge representation.[74]\nFormal logic comes in two main forms: propositional logic (which operates on statements that are true or false and uses logical connectives such as \"and\", \"or\", \"not\" and \"implies\")[75]\nand predicate logic (which also operates on objects, predicates and relations and uses quantifiers such as \"Every X is a Y\" and \"There are some Xs that are Ys\").[76]\nLogical inference (or deduction) is the process of proving a new statement (conclusion) from other statements that are already known to be true (the premises).[77]\nA logical knowledge base also handles queries and assertions as a special case of inference.[78]\nAn inference rule describes what is a valid step in a proof. The most general inference rule is resolution.[79]\nInference can be reduced to performing a search to find a path that leads from premises to conclusions, where each step is the application of an inference rule.[80]\nInference performed this way is intractable except for short proofs in restricted domains. No efficient, powerful and general method has been discovered.[81]\nFuzzy logic assigns a \"degree of truth\" between 0 and 1 and handles uncertainty and probabilistic situations.[82]\nNon-monotonic logics are designed to handle default reasoning.[25]\nOther specialized versions of logic have been developed to describe many complex domains (see knowledge representation above).\nProbabilistic methods for uncertain reasoning\nMany problems in AI (including in reasoning, planning, learning, perception, and robotics) require the agent to operate with incomplete or uncertain information. AI researchers have devised a number of tools to solve these problems using methods from probability theory and economics.[83]\nBayesian networks[84]\nare a very general tool that can be used for many problems, including reasoning (using the Bayesian inference algorithm),[g][86]\nlearning (using the expectation-maximization algorithm),[h][88]\nplanning (using decision networks)[89]\nand perception (using dynamic Bayesian networks).[90]\nProbabilistic algorithms can also be used for filtering, prediction, smoothing and finding explanations for streams of data, helping perception systems to analyze processes that occur over time (e.g., hidden Markov models or Kalman filters).[90]\nPrecise mathematical tools have been developed that analyze how an agent can make choices and plan, using decision theory, decision analysis,[91]\nand information value theory.[92]\nThese tools include models such as Markov decision processes,\n[93]\ndynamic decision networks,[90]\ngame theory and mechanism design.[94]\nClassifiers and statistical learning methods\nThe simplest AI applications can be divided into two types: classifiers (e.g. \"if shiny then diamond\"), on one hand, and controllers (e.g. \"if diamond then pick up\"), on the other hand. Classifiers[95]\nare functions that use pattern matching to determine the closest match. They can be fine-tuned based on chosen examples using supervised learning. Each pattern (also called an \"observation\") is labeled with a certain predefined class. All the observations combined with their class labels are known as a data set. When a new observation is received, that observation is classified based on previous experience.[43]\nThere are many kinds of classifiers in use. The decision tree is the simplest and most widely used symbolic machine learning algorithm.[96] K-nearest neighbor algorithm was the most widely used analogical AI until the mid-1990s, and Kernel methods such as the support vector machine (SVM) displaced k-nearest neighbor in the 1990s.[97]\nThe naive Bayes classifier is reportedly the \"most widely used learner\"[98] at Google, due in part to its scalability.[99]\nNeural networks are also used as classifiers.[100]\nArtificial neural networks\nArtificial neural networks[100] were inspired by the design of the human brain: a simple \"neuron\" N accepts input from other neurons, each of which, when activated (or \"fired\"), casts a weighted \"vote\" for or against whether neuron N should itself activate. In practice, the input \"neurons\" are a list of numbers, the \"weights\" are a matrix, the next layer is the dot product (i.e., several weighted sums) scaled by an increasing function, such as the logistic function. \"The resemblance to real neural cells and structures is superficial\", according to Russell and Norvig.[101][i]\nLearning algorithms for neural networks use local search to choose the weights that will get the right output for each input during training. The most common training technique is the backpropagation algorithm.[102]\nNeural networks learn to model complex relationships between inputs and outputs and find patterns in data. In theory, a neural network can learn any function.[103]\nIn feedforward neural networks the signal passes in only one direction.[104]\nRecurrent neural networks feed the output signal back into the input, which allows short-term memories of previous input events. Long short term memory is the most successful network architecture for recurrent networks.[105]\nPerceptrons[106]\nuse only a single layer of neurons, deep learning[107] uses multiple layers.\nConvolutional neural networks strengthen the connection between neurons that are \"close\" to each other – this is especially important in image processing, where a local set of neurons must identify an \"edge\" before the network can identify an object.[108]\nDeep learning\nDeep learning[107]\nuses several layers of neurons between the network's inputs and outputs. The multiple layers can progressively extract higher-level features from the raw input. For example, in image processing, lower layers may identify edges, while higher layers may identify the concepts relevant to a human such as digits or letters or faces.[110]\nDeep learning has drastically improved the performance of programs in many important subfields of artificial intelligence, including computer vision, speech recognition, image classification[111]\nand others. The reason that deep learning performs so well in so many applications is not known as of 2023.[112]\nThe sudden success of deep learning in 2012–2015 did not occur because of some new discovery or theoretical breakthrough (deep neural networks and backpropagation had been described by many people, as far back as the 1950s)[j]\nbut because of two factors: the incredible increase in computer power (including the hundred-fold increase in speed by switching to GPUs) and the availability of vast amounts of training data, especially the giant curated datasets used for benchmark testing, such as ImageNet.[k]\nSpecialized hardware and software\nIn the late 2010s, graphics processing units (GPUs) that were increasingly designed with AI-specific enhancements and used with specialized TensorFlow software, had replaced previously used central processing unit (CPUs) as the dominant means for large-scale (commercial and academic) machine learning models' training.[121]\nHistorically, specialized languages, such as Lisp, Prolog, and others, had been used.\nApplications\nAI and machine learning technology is used in most of the essential applications of the 2020s, including: search engines (such as Google Search),\ntargeting online advertisements,[122]\nrecommendation systems (offered by Netflix, YouTube or Amazon),\ndriving internet traffic,[123][124]\ntargeted advertising (AdSense, Facebook),\nvirtual assistants (such as Siri or Alexa),[125]\nautonomous vehicles (including drones,\nADAS and self-driving cars),\nautomatic language translation (Microsoft Translator, Google Translate),\nfacial recognition (Apple's Face ID or Microsoft's DeepFace and Google's FaceNet) and\nimage labeling (used by Facebook, Apple's iPhoto and TikTok).\nThere are also thousands of successful AI applications used to solve specific problems for specific industries or institutions. In a 2017 survey, one in five companies reported they had incorporated \"AI\" in some offerings or processes.[126]\nA few examples are energy storage,[127]\nmedical diagnosis,\nmilitary logistics,\napplications that predict the result of judicial decisions,[128]\nforeign policy,[129]\nor supply chain management.\nGame playing programs have been used since the 1950s to demonstrate and test AI's most advanced techniques. Deep Blue became the first computer chess-playing system to beat a reigning world chess champion, Garry Kasparov, on 11 May 1997.[130] In 2011, in a Jeopardy! quiz show exhibition match, IBM's question answering system, Watson, defeated the two greatest Jeopardy! champions, Brad Rutter and Ken Jennings, by a significant margin.[131]\nIn March 2016, AlphaGo won 4 out of 5 games of Go in a match with Go champion Lee Sedol, becoming the first computer Go-playing system to beat a professional Go player without handicaps.[132] Then it defeated Ke Jie in 2017, who at the time continuously held the world No. 1 ranking for two years.[133][134][135] Other programs handle imperfect-information games; such as for poker at a superhuman level, Pluribus[l] and Cepheus.[137] DeepMind in the 2010s developed a \"generalized artificial intelligence\" that could learn many diverse Atari games on its own.[138]\nIn the early 2020s, generative AI gained widespread prominence. ChatGPT, based on GPT-3, and other large language models, were tried by 14% of Americans adults.[139] The increasing realism and ease-of-use of AI-based text-to-image generators such as Midjourney, DALL-E, and Stable Diffusion[140][141]\nsparked a trend of viral AI-generated photos. Widespread attention was gained by a fake photo of Pope Francis wearing a white puffer coat,[142]\nthe fictional arrest of Donald Trump,[143]\nand a hoax of an attack on the Pentagon,[144]\nas well as the usage in professional creative arts.[145][146]\nAlphaFold 2 (2020) demonstrated the ability to approximate, in hours rather than months, the 3D structure of a protein.[147]\nEthics\nAI, like any powerful technology, has potential benefits and potential risks. AI may be able to advance science and find solutions for serious problems: Demis Hassabis of Deep Mind hopes to \"solve intelligence, and then use that to solve everything else\".[148] However, as the use of AI has become widespread, several unintended consequences and risks have been identified.[149]\nAnyone looking to use machine learning as part of real-world, in-production systems needs to factor ethics into their AI training processes and strive to avoid bias. This is especially true when using AI algorithms that are inherently unexplainable in deep learning.[150]\nRisks and harm\nMachine learning algorithms require large amounts of data. The techniques used to acquire this data have raised concerns about privacy, surveillance and copyright.\nTechnology companies collect a wide range of data from their users, including online activity, geolocation data, video and audio.[151]\nFor example, in order to build speech recognition algorithms, Amazon others have recorded millions of private conversations and allowed temps to listen to and transcribe some of them.[152]\nOpinions about this widespread surveillance range from those who see it as a necessary evil to those for whom it is clearly unethical and a violation of the right to privacy.[153]\nAI developers argue that this is the only way to deliver valuable applications. and have developed several techniques that attempt to preserve privacy while still obtaining the data, such as data aggregation, de-identification and differential privacy.[154]\nSince 2016, some privacy experts, such as Cynthia Dwork, began to view privacy in terms of fairness -- Brian Christian wrote that experts have pivoted \"from the question of 'what they know' to the question of 'what they're doing with it'.\".[155]\nGenerative AI is often trained on unlicensed copyrighted works, including in domains such as images or computer code; the output is then used under a rationale of \"fair use\". Experts disagree about how well, and under what circumstances, this rationale will hold up in courts of law; relevant factors may include \"the purpose and character of the use of the copyrighted work\" and \"the effect upon the potential market for the copyrighted work\".[156] In 2023, leading authors (including John Grisham and Jonathan Franzen) sued AI companies for using their work to train generative AI.[157][158]\nYouTube, Facebook and others use recommender systems to guide users to more content. These AI programs were given the goal of maximizing user engagement (that is, the only goal was to keep people watching). The AI learned that users tended to choose misinformation, conspiracy theories, and extreme partisan content, and, to keep them watching, the AI recommended more of it. Users also tended to watch more content on the same subject, so the AI led people into filter bubbles where they received multiple versions of the same misinformation.[159] This convinced many users that the misinformation was true, and ultimately undermined trust in institutions, the media and the government.[160] The AI program had correctly learned to maximize its goal, but the result was harmful to society. After the U.S. election in 2016, major technology companies took steps to mitigate the problem.\nIn 2022, generative AI began to create images, audio, video and text that are indistinguishable from real photographs, recordings, films or human writing.\nIt is possible for bad actors to use this technology to create massive amounts of misinformation or propaganda.[161] AI pioneer Geoffrey Hinton expressed concern about AI enabling \"authoritarian leaders to manipulate their electorates\" on a large scale, among other risks.[162]\nMachine learning applications will be biased if they learn from biased data.[163]\nThe developers may not be aware that the bias exists.[164]\nBias can be introduced by the way training data is selected and by the way a model is deployed.[165][163] If a biased algorithm is used to make decisions that can seriously harm people (as it can in medicine, finance, recruitment, housing or policing) then the algorithm may cause discrimination.[166]\nFairness in machine learning is the study of how to prevent the harm caused by algorithmic bias. It has become serious area of academic study within AI. Researchers have discovered it is not always possible to define \"fairness\" in a way that satisfies all stakeholders.[167]\nOn June 28, 2015, Google Photos's new image labeling feature mistakenly identified Jacky Alcine and a friend as \"gorillas\" because they were black. The system was trained on a dataset that contained very few images of black people,[168] a problem called \"sample size disparity\".[169] Google \"fixed\" this problem by preventing the system from labelling anything as a \"gorilla\". Eight years later, in 2023, Google Photos still could not identify a gorilla, and neither could similar products from Apple, Facebook, Microsoft and Amazon.[170]\nCOMPAS is a commercial program widely used by U.S. courts to assess the likelihood of a defendant becoming a recidivist.\nIn 2016, Julia Angwin at ProPublica discovered that COMPAS exhibited racial bias, despite the fact that the program was not told the races of the defendants. Although the error rate for both whites and blacks was calibrated equal at exactly 61%, the errors for each race were different -- the system consistently overestimated the chance that a black person would re-offend and would underestimate the chance that a white person would not re-offend.[171] In 2017, several researchers[m] showed that it was mathematically impossible for COMPAS to accommodate all possible measures of fairness when the base rates of re-offense were different for whites and blacks in the data.[173]\nA program can make biased decisions even if the data does not explicitly mention a problematic feature (such as \"race\" or \"gender\"). The feature will correlate with other features (like \"address\", \"shopping history\" or \"first name\"), and the program will make the same decisions based on these features as it would on \"race\" or \"gender\".[174]\nMoritz Hardt said \"the most robust fact in this research area is that fairness through blindness doesn't work.\"[175]\nCriticism of COMPAS highlighted a deeper problem with the misuse of AI. Machine learning models are designed to make \"predictions\" that are only valid if we assume that the future will resemble the past. If they are trained on data that includes the results of racist decisions in the past, machine learning models must predict that racist decisions will be made in the future. Unfortunately, if an application then uses these predictions as recommendations, some of these \"recommendations\" will likely be racist.[176] Thus, machine learning is not well suited to help make decisions in areas where there is hope that the future will be better than the past. It is necessarily descriptive and not proscriptive.[n]\nBias and unfairness may go undetected because the developers are overwhelmingly white and male: among AI engineers, about 4% are black and 20% are women.[169]\nAt its 2022 Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency (ACM FAccT 2022) the Association for Computing Machinery, in Seoul, South Korea, presented and published findings recommending that until AI and robotics systems are demonstrated to be free of bias mistakes, they are unsafe and the use of self-learning neural networks trained on vast, unregulated sources of flawed internet data should be curtailed.[178]\nMost modern AI applications can not explain how they have reached a decision.[179] The large amount of relationships between inputs and outputs in deep neural networks and resulting complexity makes it difficult for even an expert to explain how they produced their outputs, making them a black box.[180]\nThere have been many cases where a machine learning program passed rigorous tests, but nevertheless learned something different than what the programmers intended. For example, Justin Ko and Roberto Novoa developed a system that could identify skin diseases better than medical professionals, however it classified any image with a ruler as \"cancerous\", because pictures of malignancies typically include a ruler to show the scale.[181] A more dangerous example was discovered by Rich Caruana in 2015: a machine learning system that accurately predicted risk of death classified a patient that was over 65, asthma and difficulty breathing as \"low risk\". Further research showed that in high-risk cases like this, the hospital would allocate more resources and save the patient's life, decreasing the risk measured by the program.[182] Mistakes like these become obvious when we know how the program has reached a decision. Without an explanation, these problems may not not be discovered until after they have caused harm.\nA second issue is that people who have been harmed by an algorithm's decision have a right to an explanation. Doctors, for example, are required to clearly and completely explain the reasoning behind any decision they make.[183] Early drafts of the European Union's General Data Protection Regulation in 2016 included an explicit statement that this right exists.[o] Industry experts noted that this is an unsolved problem with no solution in sight. Regulators argued that nevertheless the harm is real: if the problem has no solution, the tools should not be used.[184]\nDARPA established the XAI (\"Explainable Artificial Intelligence\") program in 2014 to try and solve these problems.[185]\nThere are several potential solutions to the transparency problem. Multitask learning provides a large number of outputs in addition to the target classification. These other outputs can help developers deduce what the network has learned.[186] Deconvolution, DeepDream and other generative methods can allow developers to see what different layers of a deep network have learned and produce output that can suggest what the network is learning.[187] Supersparse linear integer models use learning to identify the most important features, rather than the classification. Simple addition of these features can then make the classification (i.e. learning is used to create a scoring system classifier, which is transparent).[188]\nA lethal autonomous weapon is a machine that locates, selects and engages human targets without human supervision.[p] By 2015, over fifty countries were reported to be researching battlefield robots.[190] These weapons are considered especially dangerous for several reasons: if they kill an innocent person it is not clear who should be held accountable, it is unlikely they will reliably choose targets, and, if produced at scale, they are potentially weapons of mass destruction.[191] In 2014, 30 nations (including China) supported a ban on autonomous weapons under the United Nations' Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons, however the United States and others disagreed.[192]\nAI provides a number of tools that are particularly useful for authoritarian governments: smart spyware, face recognition and voice recognition allow widespread surveillance; such surveillance allows machine learning to classify potential enemies of the state and can prevent them from hiding; recommendation systems can precisely target propaganda and misinformation for maximum effect; deepfakes and generative AI aid in producing misinformation; advanced AI can make authoritarian centralized decision making more competitive with liberal and decentralized systems such as markets.[193]\nTerrorists, criminals and rogue states can use weaponized AI such as advanced digital warfare and lethal autonomous weapons.\nMachine-learning AI is also able to design tens of thousands of toxic molecules in a matter of hours.[194]\nFrom the early days of the development of artificial intelligence there have been arguments, for example those put forward by Weizenbaum, about whether tasks that can be done by computers actually should be done by them, given the difference between computers and humans, and between quantitative calculation and qualitative, value-based judgement.[195]\nEconomists have frequently highlighted the risks of redundancies from AI, and speculated about unemployment if there is no adequate social policy for full employment.[196]\nIn the past, technology has tended to increase rather than reduce total employment, but economists acknowledge that \"we're in uncharted territory\" with AI.[197] A survey of economists showed disagreement about whether the increasing use of robots and AI will cause a substantial increase in long-term unemployment, but they generally agree that it could be a net benefit if productivity gains are redistributed.[198] Risk estimates vary; for example, in the 2010s Michael Osborne and Carl Benedikt Frey estimated 47% of U.S. jobs are at \"high risk\" of potential automation, while an OECD report classified only 9% of U.S. jobs as \"high risk\".[q][200] The methodology of speculating about future employment levels has been criticised as lacking evidential foundation, and for implying that technology (rather than social policy) creates unemployment (as opposed to redundancies).[196]\nUnlike previous waves of automation, many middle-class jobs may be eliminated by artificial intelligence; The Economist stated in 2015 that \"the worry that AI could do to white-collar jobs what steam power did to blue-collar ones during the Industrial Revolution\" is \"worth taking seriously\".[201] Jobs at extreme risk range from paralegals to fast food cooks, while job demand is likely to increase for care-related professions ranging from personal healthcare to the clergy.[202]\nIn April 2023, it was reported that 70% of the jobs for Chinese video game illlustrators had been eliminated by generative artificial intelligence.[203][204]\nIt has been argued AI will become so powerful that humanity may irreversibly lose control of it. This could, as the physicist Stephen Hawking puts it, \"spell the end of the human race\".[205] This scenario has been common in science fiction, when a computer or robot suddenly develops a human-like \"self-awareness\" (or \"sentience\" or \"consciousness\") and becomes a malevolent character.[r] These sci-fi scenarios are misleading in several ways.\nFirst, AI does not require human-like \"sentience\" to be an existential risk. Modern AI programs are given specific goals and use learning and intelligence to achieve them. Philosopher Nick Bostrom argued that if one gives almost any goal to a sufficiently powerful AI, it may choose to destroy humanity to achieve it (he used the example of a paperclip factory manager).[207] Stuart Russell gives the example of household robot that tries to find a way to kill its owner to prevent it from being unplugged, reasoning that \"you can't fetch the coffee if you're dead.\"[208] In order to be safe for humanity, a superintelligence would have to be genuinely aligned with humanity's morality and values so that it is \"fundamentally on our side\".[209]\nSecond, Yuval Noah Harari argues that AI does not require a robot body or physical control to pose an existential risk. The essential parts of civilization are not physical. Things like ideologies, law, government, money and the economy are made of language; they exist because there are stories that billions of people believe. The current prevalence of misinformation suggests that an AI could use language to convince people to believe anything, even to take actions that are destructive.[210]\nThe opinions amongst experts and industry insiders are mixed, with sizable fractions both concerned and unconcerned by risk from eventual superintelligent AI.[211] Personalities such as Stephen Hawking, Bill Gates, Elon Musk have expressed concern about existential risk from AI.[212]\nIn the early 2010's, experts argued that the risks are too distant in the future to warrant research or that humans will be valuable from the perspective of a superintelligent machine.[213]\nHowever, after 2016, the study of current and future risks and possible solutions became a serious area of research.[214]\nAI pioneers including Fei-Fei Li, Geoffrey Hinton, Yoshua Bengio, Cynthia Breazeal, Rana el Kaliouby, Demis Hassabis, Joy Buolamwini, and Sam Altman have expressed concerns about the risks of AI and in 2023 many leading AI experts issued the joint statement that \"Mitigating the risk of extinction from AI should be a global priority alongside other societal-scale risks such as pandemics and nuclear war\".[215]\nEthical machines and alignment\nFriendly AI are machines that have been designed from the beginning to minimize risks and to make choices that benefit humans. Eliezer Yudkowsky, who coined the term, argues that developing friendly AI should be a higher research priority: it may require a large investment and it must be completed before AI becomes an existential risk.[216]\nMachines with intelligence have the potential to use their intelligence to make ethical decisions. The field of machine ethics provides machines with ethical principles and procedures for resolving ethical dilemmas.[217]\nThe field of machine ethics is also called computational morality,[217]\nand was founded at an AAAI symposium in 2005.[218]\nOther approaches include Wendell Wallach's \"artificial moral agents\"[219]\nand Stuart J. Russell's three principles for developing provably beneficial machines.[220]\nRegulation\nThe regulation of artificial intelligence is the development of public sector policies and laws for promoting and regulating artificial intelligence (AI); it is therefore related to the broader regulation of algorithms.[221]\nThe regulatory and policy landscape for AI is an emerging issue in jurisdictions globally.[222] According to AI Index at Stanford, the annual number of AI-related laws passed in the 127 survey countries jumped from one passed in 2016 to 37 passed in 2022 alone.[223][224]\nBetween 2016 and 2020, more than 30 countries adopted dedicated strategies for AI.[225]\nMost EU member states had released national AI strategies, as had Canada, China, India, Japan, Mauritius, the Russian Federation, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, US and Vietnam. Others were in the process of elaborating their own AI strategy, including Bangladesh, Malaysia and Tunisia.[225]\nThe Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence was launched in June 2020, stating a need for AI to be developed in accordance with human rights and democratic values, to ensure public confidence and trust in the technology.[225] Henry Kissinger, Eric Schmidt, and Daniel Huttenlocher published a joint statement in November 2021 calling for a government commission to regulate AI.[226]\nIn 2023, OpenAI leaders published recommendations for the governance of superintelligence, which they believe may happen in less than 10 years.[227]\nIn a 2022 Ipsos survey, attitudes towards AI varied greatly by country; 78% of Chinese citizens, but only 35% of Americans, agreed that \"products and services using AI have more benefits than drawbacks\".[223] A 2023 Reuters/Ipsos poll found that 61% of Americans agree, and 22% disagree, that AI poses risks to humanity.[228]\nIn a 2023 Fox News poll, 35% of Americans thought it \"very important\", and an additional 41% thought it \"somewhat important\", for the federal government to regulate AI, versus 13% responding \"not very important\" and 8% responding \"not at all important\".[229][230]\nIn November 2023, a global AI safety summit was held in Bletchley Park to discuss the near and far term risks of AI and the possibility of mandatory and voluntary regulatory frameworks.[231]\nHistory\nThe study of mechanical or \"formal\" reasoning began with philosophers and mathematicians in antiquity. The study of logic led directly to Alan Turing's theory of computation, which suggested that a machine, by shuffling symbols as simple as \"0\" and \"1\", could simulate both mathematical deduction and formal reasoning, which is known as the Church–Turing thesis.[232] This, along with concurrent discoveries in cybernetics and information theory, led researchers to consider the possibility of building an \"electronic brain\".[s][234] The first paper later recognized as \"AI\" was McCullouch and Pitts design for Turing-complete \"artificial neurons\" in 1943.[235]\nThe field of AI research was founded at a workshop at Dartmouth College in 1956.[t][2] The attendees became the leaders of AI research in the 1960s.[u] They and their students produced programs that the press described as \"astonishing\":[v] computers were learning checkers strategies, solving word problems in algebra, proving logical theorems and speaking English.[w][3]\nBy the middle of the 1960s, research in the U.S. was heavily funded by the Department of Defense[239] and laboratories had been established around the world.[240] Herbert Simon predicted, \"machines will be capable, within twenty years, of doing any work a man can do\".[241] Marvin Minsky agreed, writing, \"within a generation ... the problem of creating 'artificial intelligence' will substantially be solved\".[242]\nThey had, however, underestimated the difficulty of the problem.[x] Both the U.S. and British governments cut off exploratory research in response to the criticism of Sir James Lighthill[244] and ongoing pressure from the US Congress to fund more productive projects. Minsky's and Papert's book Perceptrons was understood as proving that artificial neural networks approach would never be useful for solving real-world tasks, thus discrediting the approach altogether.[245] The \"AI winter\", a period when obtaining funding for AI projects was difficult, followed.[5]\nIn the early 1980s, AI research was revived by the commercial success of expert systems,[246] a form of AI program that simulated the knowledge and analytical skills of human experts. By 1985, the market for AI had reached over a billion dollars. At the same time, Japan's fifth generation computer project inspired the U.S. and British governments to restore funding for academic research.[4] However, beginning with the collapse of the Lisp Machine market in 1987, AI once again fell into disrepute, and a second, longer-lasting winter began.[6]\nMany researchers began to doubt that the current practices would be able to imitate all the processes of human cognition, especially perception, robotics, learning and pattern recognition.[247] A number of researchers began to look into \"sub-symbolic\" approaches.[248] Robotics researchers, such as Rodney Brooks, rejected \"representation\" in general and focussed directly on engineering machines that move and survive.[y]. Judea Pearl, Lofti Zadeh and others developed methods that handled incomplete and uncertain information by making reasonable guesses rather than precise logic.[83][253] But the most important development was the revival of \"connectionism\", including neural network research, by Geoffrey Hinton and others.[254] In 1990, Yann LeCun successfully showed that convolutional neural networks can recognize handwritten digits, the first of many successful applications of neural networks.[255]\nAI gradually restored its reputation in the late 1990s and early 21st century by exploiting formal mathematical methods and by finding specific solutions to specific problems. This \"narrow\" and \"formal\" focus allowed researchers to produce verifiable results and collaborate with other fields (such as statistics, economics and mathematics).[256]\nBy 2000, solutions developed by AI researchers were being widely used, although in the 1990s they were rarely described as \"artificial intelligence\".[257]\nSeveral academic researchers became concerned that AI was no longer pursuing the original goal of creating versatile, fully intelligent machines. Beginning around 2002, they founded the subfield of artificial general intelligence (or \"AGI\"), which had several well-funded institutions by the 2010s.[8]\nDeep learning began to dominate industry benchmarks in 2012 and was adopted throughout the field.[7]\nFor many specific tasks, other methods were abandoned.[z]\nDeep learning's success was based on both hardware improvements (faster computers,[259] graphics processing units, cloud computing[260])\nand access to large amounts of data[261] (including curated datasets,[260] such as ImageNet).\nDeep learning's success led to an enormous increase in interest and funding in AI.[aa]\nThe amount of machine learning research (measured by total publications) increased by 50% in the years 2015–2019,[225]\nand WIPO reported that AI was the most prolific emerging technology in terms of the number of patent applications and granted patents[262]\nAccording to 'AI Impacts', about $50 billion annually was invested in \"AI\" around 2022 in the US alone and about 20% of new US Computer Science PhD graduates have specialized in \"AI\";[263]\nabout 800,000 \"AI\"-related US job openings existed in 2022.[264]\nIn 2016, issues of fairness and the misuse of technology were catapulted into center stage at machine learning conferences, publications vastly increased, funding became available, and many researchers re-focussed their careers on these issues. The alignment problem became a serious field of academic study.[214]\nPhilosophy\nDefining artificial intelligence\nAlan Turing wrote in 1950 \"I propose to consider the question 'can machines think'?\"[265]\nHe advised changing the question from whether a machine \"thinks\", to \"whether or not it is possible for machinery to show intelligent behaviour\".[265]\nHe devised the Turing test, which measures the ability of a machine to simulate human conversation.[266] Since we can only observe the behavior of the machine, it does not matter if it is \"actually\" thinking or literally has a \"mind\". Turing notes that we can not determine these things about other people[ab] but \"it is usual to have a polite convention that everyone thinks\"[267]\nRussell and Norvig agree with Turing that AI must be defined in terms of \"acting\" and not \"thinking\".[268] However, they are critical that the test compares machines to people. \"Aeronautical engineering texts,\" they wrote, \"do not define the goal of their field as making 'machines that fly so exactly like pigeons that they can fool other pigeons.'\"[269] AI founder John McCarthy agreed, writing that \"Artificial intelligence is not, by definition, simulation of human intelligence\".[270]\nMcCarthy defines intelligence as \"the computational part of the ability to achieve goals in the world.\"[271] Another AI founder, Marvin Minsky similarly defines it as \"the ability to solve hard problems\".[272] These definitions view intelligence in terms of well-defined problems with well-defined solutions, where both the difficulty of the problem and the performance of the program are direct measures of the \"intelligence\" of the machine—and no other philosophical discussion is required, or may not even be possible.\nAnother definition has been adopted by Google,[273] a major practitioner in the field of AI.\nThis definition stipulates the ability of systems to synthesize information as the manifestation of intelligence, similar to the way it is defined in biological intelligence.\nEvaluating approaches to AI\nNo established unifying theory or paradigm has guided AI research for most of its history.[ac] The unprecedented success of statistical machine learning in the 2010s eclipsed all other approaches (so much so that some sources, especially in the business world, use the term \"artificial intelligence\" to mean \"machine learning with neural networks\"). This approach is mostly sub-symbolic, soft and narrow (see below). Critics argue that these questions may have to be revisited by future generations of AI researchers.\nSymbolic AI (or \"GOFAI\")[275] simulated the high-level conscious reasoning that people use when they solve puzzles, express legal reasoning and do mathematics. They were highly successful at \"intelligent\" tasks such as algebra or IQ tests. In the 1960s, Newell and Simon proposed the physical symbol systems hypothesis: \"A physical symbol system has the necessary and sufficient means of general intelligent action.\"[276]\nHowever, the symbolic approach failed on many tasks that humans solve easily, such as learning, recognizing an object or commonsense reasoning. Moravec's paradox is the discovery that high-level \"intelligent\" tasks were easy for AI, but low level \"instinctive\" tasks were extremely difficult.[277]\nPhilosopher Hubert Dreyfus had argued since the 1960s that human expertise depends on unconscious instinct rather than conscious symbol manipulation, and on having a \"feel\" for the situation, rather than explicit symbolic knowledge.[278]\nAlthough his arguments had been ridiculed and ignored when they were first presented, eventually, AI research came to agree.[ad][13]\nThe issue is not resolved: sub-symbolic reasoning can make many of the same inscrutable mistakes that human intuition does, such as algorithmic bias. Critics such as Noam Chomsky argue continuing research into symbolic AI will still be necessary to attain general intelligence,[280][281] in part because sub-symbolic AI is a move away from explainable AI: it can be difficult or impossible to understand why a modern statistical AI program made a particular decision. The emerging field of neuro-symbolic artificial intelligence attempts to bridge the two approaches.\n\"Neats\" hope that intelligent behavior is described using simple, elegant principles (such as logic, optimization, or neural networks). \"Scruffies\" expect that it necessarily requires solving a large number of unrelated problems. Neats defend their programs with theoretical rigor, scruffies rely mainly on incremental testing to see if they work. This issue was actively discussed in the 70s and 80s,[282]\nbut eventually was seen as irrelevant. Modern AI has elements of both.\nFinding a provably correct or optimal solution is intractable for many important problems.[12] Soft computing is a set of techniques, including genetic algorithms, fuzzy logic and neural networks, that are tolerant of imprecision, uncertainty, partial truth and approximation. Soft computing was introduced in the late 80s and most successful AI programs in the 21st century are examples of soft computing with neural networks.\nAI researchers are divided as to whether to pursue the goals of artificial general intelligence and superintelligence directly or to solve as many specific problems as possible (narrow AI) in hopes these solutions will lead indirectly to the field's long-term goals.[283][284]\nGeneral intelligence is difficult to define and difficult to measure, and modern AI has had more verifiable successes by focusing on specific problems with specific solutions. The experimental sub-field of artificial general intelligence studies this area exclusively.\nMachine consciousness, sentience and mind\nThe philosophy of mind does not know whether a machine can have a mind, consciousness and mental states, in the same sense that human beings do. This issue considers the internal experiences of the machine, rather than its external behavior. Mainstream AI research considers this issue irrelevant because it does not affect the goals of the field: to build machines that can solve problems using intelligence. Russell and Norvig add that \"[t]he additional project of making a machine conscious in exactly the way humans are is not one that we are equipped to take on.\"[285] However, the question has become central to the philosophy of mind. It is also typically the central question at issue in artificial intelligence in fiction.\nDavid Chalmers identified two problems in understanding the mind, which he named the \"hard\" and \"easy\" problems of consciousness.[286] The easy problem is understanding how the brain processes signals, makes plans and controls behavior. The hard problem is explaining how this feels or why it should feel like anything at all, assuming we are right in thinking that it truly does feel like something (Dennett's consciousness illusionism says this is an illusion). Human information processing is easy to explain, however, human subjective experience is difficult to explain. For example, it is easy to imagine a color-blind person who has learned to identify which objects in their field of view are red, but it is not clear what would be required for the person to know what red looks like.[287]\nComputationalism is the position in the philosophy of mind that the human mind is an information processing system and that thinking is a form of computing. Computationalism argues that the relationship between mind and body is similar or identical to the relationship between software and hardware and thus may be a solution to the mind–body problem. This philosophical position was inspired by the work of AI researchers and cognitive scientists in the 1960s and was originally proposed by philosophers Jerry Fodor and Hilary Putnam.[288]\nPhilosopher John Searle characterized this position as \"strong AI\": \"The appropriately programmed computer with the right inputs and outputs would thereby have a mind in exactly the same sense human beings have minds.\"[ae]\nSearle counters this assertion with his Chinese room argument, which attempts to show that, even if a machine perfectly simulates human behavior, there is still no reason to suppose it also has a mind.[292]\nIf a machine has a mind and subjective experience, then it may also have sentience (the ability to feel), and if so it could also suffer; it has been argued that this could entitle it to certain rights.[293]\nAny hypothetical robot rights would lie on a spectrum with animal rights and human rights.[294]\nThis issue has been considered in fiction for centuries,[295]\nand is now being considered by, for example, California's Institute for the Future; however, critics argue that the discussion is premature.[296]\nFuture\nSuperintelligence and the singularity\nA superintelligence is a hypothetical agent that would possess intelligence far surpassing that of the brightest and most gifted human mind.[284]\nIf research into artificial general intelligence produced sufficiently intelligent software, it might be able to reprogram and improve itself. The improved software would be even better at improving itself, leading to what I. J. Good called an \"intelligence explosion\" and Vernor Vinge called a \"singularity\".[297]\nHowever, technologies can't improve exponentially indefinitely, and typically follow an S-shaped curve, slowing when they reach the physical limits of what the technology can do.[298]\nTranshumanism\nRobot designer Hans Moravec, cyberneticist Kevin Warwick, and inventor Ray Kurzweil have predicted that humans and machines will merge in the future into cyborgs that are more capable and powerful than either. This idea, called transhumanism, has roots in Aldous Huxley and Robert Ettinger.[299]\nEdward Fredkin argues that \"artificial intelligence is the next stage in evolution\", an idea first proposed by Samuel Butler's \"Darwin among the Machines\" as far back as 1863, and expanded upon by George Dyson in his book of the same name in 1998.[300]\nIn fiction\nThought-capable artificial beings have appeared as storytelling devices since antiquity,[301]\nand have been a persistent theme in science fiction.[302]\nA common trope in these works began with Mary Shelley's Frankenstein, where a human creation becomes a threat to its masters. This includes such works as Arthur C. Clarke's and Stanley Kubrick's 2001: A Space Odyssey (both 1968), with HAL 9000, the murderous computer in charge of the Discovery One spaceship, as well as The Terminator (1984) and The Matrix (1999). In contrast, the rare loyal robots such as Gort from The Day the Earth Stood Still (1951) and Bishop from Aliens (1986) are less prominent in popular culture.[303]\nIsaac Asimov introduced the Three Laws of Robotics in many books and stories, most notably the \"Multivac\" series about a super-intelligent computer of the same name. Asimov's laws are often brought up during lay discussions of machine ethics;[304]\nwhile almost all artificial intelligence researchers are familiar with Asimov's laws through popular culture, they generally consider the laws useless for many reasons, one of which is their ambiguity.[305]\nSeveral works use AI to force us to confront the fundamental question of what makes us human, showing us artificial beings that have the ability to feel, and thus to suffer. This appears in Karel Čapek's R.U.R., the films A.I. Artificial Intelligence and Ex Machina, as well as the novel Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?, by Philip K. Dick. Dick considers the idea that our understanding of human subjectivity is altered by technology created with artificial intelligence.[306]\nSee also\nExplanatory notes\nReferences\nAI textbooks\nThe two most widely used textbooks in 2023. (See the Open Syllabus).\nThese were the four the most widely used AI textbooks in 2008:\nLater editions.\nHistory of AI\nOther sources\nFurther reading\nExternal links"
        },
        {
            "url": "https://www.britannica.com/science/autumn-season",
            "raw_content": "Autumn | Definition, Characteristics, & Facts | Britannica\n\nSearch Britannica  Click here to search\n\nSearch Britannica  Click here to search\nSubscribe Now\nSubscribe\nLogin\n\nHome\nHistory & Society\nScience & Tech\nBiographies\nAnimals & Nature\nGeography & Travel\nArts & Culture\n\nMoney\n\n\nGames & Quizzes\n\nVideos\nOn This Day\nOne Good Fact\nDictionary\nNew Articles\n\nHistory & Society\n\nLifestyles & Social Issues\nPhilosophy & Religion\nPolitics, Law & Government\nWorld History\n\nScience & Tech\n\nHealth & Medicine\nScience\nTechnology\n\nBiographies\n\nBrowse Biographies\n\nAnimals & Nature\n\nBirds, Reptiles & Other Vertebrates\nBugs, Mollusks & Other Invertebrates\nEnvironment\nFossils & Geologic Time\nMammals\nPlants\n\nGeography & Travel\n\nGeography & Travel\n\nArts & Culture\n\nEntertainment & Pop Culture\nLiterature\nSports & Recreation\n\nVisual Arts\n\n\nCompanions\n\nDemystified\nImage Galleries\nInfographics\nLists\nPodcasts\nSpotlight\nSummaries\nThe Forum\nTop Questions\n\n#WTFact\n\n\n100 Women\n\nBritannica Kids\nSaving Earth\nSpace Next 50\nStudent Center\n\nAsk the Chatbot Games & Quizzes History & Society Science & Tech Biographies Animals & Nature Geography & Travel Arts & Culture Money Videos\nautumn\nTable of Contents\nIntroduction References & Edit History Quick Facts & Related Topics\nImages & Videos\n \nRelated Questions\n\nWhat does Earth look like?\n\nRead Next\n\nWhy Do Leaves Change Colors in the Fall?\n\n22 Questions About Time and Timekeeping Answered\n\nWhy Do Leaves Fall in Autumn?\n\nThe Perils of an Early Spring\n\nFirst Day of Fall\nDiscover\n\n7 Scary Surgical Instruments, Then and Now\n\nWhere Does the Name Europe Come From?\n\nCruel and Unusual Punishments: 15 Types of Torture\n\nWhat’s the Difference Between Hispanic and Latino?\n\nAll 119 References in “We Didn’t Start the Fire,” Explained\n\nWhy Is a Baker’s Dozen 13?\n\n10 Famous Artworks by Leonardo da Vinci\nContents\nScience Earth Science, Geologic Time & Fossils Earth Sciences\nautumn\nseason\nActions\nCite\n_verified_Cite\nWhile every effort has been made to follow citation style rules, there may be some discrepancies. Please refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions.\nSelect Citation Style\nCopy Citation\nShare\nShare\nShare to social media\nFacebook X\nURL\nhttps://www.britannica.com/science/autumn-season\nGive Feedback\nExternal Websites\nFeedback\nCorrections? Updates? Omissions? Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login).\nFeedback Type \nYour Feedback Submit Feedback\nThank you for your feedback\nOur editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.\nExternal Websites\n\nLiveScience - Autumn: The Cooling-Off Season\n\nBritannica Websites\nArticles from Britannica Encyclopedias for elementary and high school students.\n\nautumn - Children's Encyclopedia (Ages 8-11)\nautumn - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up)\n\nPrint Cite\n_verified_Cite\nWhile every effort has been made to follow citation style rules, there may be some discrepancies. Please refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions.\nSelect Citation Style\nCopy Citation\nShare\nShare\nShare to social media\nFacebook X\nURL\nhttps://www.britannica.com/science/autumn-season\nFeedback\nExternal Websites\nFeedback\nCorrections? Updates? Omissions? Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login).\nFeedback Type \nYour Feedback Submit Feedback\nThank you for your feedback\nOur editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.\nExternal Websites\n\nLiveScience - Autumn: The Cooling-Off Season\n\nBritannica Websites\nArticles from Britannica Encyclopedias for elementary and high school students.\n\nautumn - Children's Encyclopedia (Ages 8-11)\nautumn - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up)\n\nAlso known as: fall\nWritten and fact-checked by\nThe Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors.\nThe Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica\nLast Updated: Aug 29, 2024 • Article History\nTable of Contents\n\nautumn\nSee all media\nRelated Topics:\ncalendar\nharvest\nyear\nIndian summer\nautumnal equinox\n(Show more)\nSee all related content →\nRecent News\nAug. 29, 2024, 4:45 PM ET (AP)\nFall is bringing fantasy (and romantasy), literary fiction, politics and Taylor-ed book offerings\nautumn, season of the year between summer and winter during which temperatures gradually decrease. It is often called fall in the United States because leaves fall from the trees at that time. Autumn is usually defined in the Northern Hemisphere as the period between the autumnal equinox (day and night equal in length), September 22 or 23, and the winter solstice (year’s shortest day), December 21 or 22; and in the Southern Hemisphere as the period between March 20 or 21 and June 21 or 22. The autumn temperature transition between summer heat and winter cold occurs only in middle and high latitudes; in equatorial regions, temperatures generally vary little during the year. In the polar regions autumn is very short. For physical causes of the seasons, see season.\n\nWhat causes the seasons?In many parts of the world, weather cycles through the four seasons like clockwork: spring, summer, autumn, and winter.(more)\nSee all videos for this article\n\nWhy do some trees lose their leaves in autumn?Learn why leaves of deciduous trees change colour in autumn.(more)\nSee all videos for this article\nThe concept of autumn in European languages is connected with the harvesting of crops; in many cultures autumn, like the other seasons, has been marked by rites and festivals revolving around the season’s importance in food production. Animals gather food in autumn in preparation for the coming winter, and those with fur often grow thicker coats. Many birds migrate toward the Equator to escape the falling temperatures. A common autumn phenomenon in the central and eastern United States and in Europe is Indian summer, a period of unseasonably warm weather that sometimes occurs in late October or November.\nThe Editors of Encyclopaedia BritannicaThis article was most recently revised and updated by Meg Matthias."
        },
        {
            "url": "https://tavily.com/",
            "raw_content": "Say Goodbye to Hours of Research\nSay Hello to Tavily, your AI mate for rapid insights and comprehensive research. Tavily takes care of everything from accurate source gathering to organization of research results - all in one platform designed to make your research process a breeze.\nIntroducing our Search API - Your AI's Gateway to the Web\nElevate your AI capabilities with a search engine built specifically for AI agents (LLMs), delivering real-time, accurate, and factual results at speed.\nIn-depth Research\nSimplify data gathering with trusted, aggregated and curated results from a single API call.\nIntelligent Query Suggestions and Answers\nEquip your AI with the ability to iteratively deepen its knowledge through automated, nuanced answers and follow-up queries.\nTailored search retrieval for AI agents\nWe know that each AI agent requires different data. That's why we've built a flexible API that allows you to customize your search to your needs. We use a combination of proprietary data sources and models to deliver the most relevant results for your AI agent.\nIt is critical for finance AI applications to retrieve realtime and correct data for making the right decisions. Tavily aggregates information from curated sources to deliver the most relevant results for your AI agent. Anything from stock prices to company financials, we have you covered.\nOur goal is to make the research process a breeze, so you can focus on what matters\nWith Tavily Research Assistant, all you need is to share your objectives and questions, and voila! Tavily provides comprehensive, accurate and credible research results in a matter of seconds.\n1. Share what you want to research\nFor example: \"Plan a 5 day romantic trip to Paris\" or \"how to optimize my Linkedin profile\"\n2. Tavily will start the research process\nTavily will start gathering information from multiple online trusted sources. Tavily aims to provide you with the most accurate and credible information.\n3. Get a comprehensive research report\nTavily will then organize the information and provide you with a comprehensive research report within minutes.\n4. Dive deeper and share insights\nOnce you have your research results, you can dive deeper to more research tasks, and even share your reports.\nFind a plan to power your AI Agents\nFor new creators building\nIdeal for growing businesses\nBuilt for scale and exclusive data\nEverything you need to know\nHere are the questions most people always ask about.\nTavily is proficient in conducting any kind of research regardless of the subject matter or niche. Tavily can help with anything from \"find the top 5 restaurants in NYC\" to academic research like \"What is the economic impact of Covid?\".\nTavily uses advanced algorithms and models to gather information from relevant sources. We also have a team of experts who review the information to refine and ensure research correctness.\nUnlike Bing, Google and SerpAPI, Tavily Search API reviews multiple sources to find the most relevant content from each source to optimize for LLM context. Tavily Search API is also more affordable and flexible.\nIt depends on the research. In average, you will receive a comprehensive research report within minutes. Our API can return research results in seconds!\nYes, Tavily provides comprehensive cited sources for the research results. You can also tell Tavily which sources to focus on.\nBoth! Tavily is ideal for anyone who needs to conduct research to make unbiased and informed decisions. We works closely with individuals, startups and enterprises to provide the best research experience.\nUnleash the Power of AI with Automated Research\nTavily does your research for you, so you can spend less time stressing over it and more time focusing on the things that really matter.\n© 2023 Tavily Inc. All rights reserved."
        }
    ],
    "failed_results": [
    ],
    "response_time": 0.02
}

Error Handling

The Tavily Python SDK includes comprehensive error handling to ensure smooth interaction with the API. Below are the specific exceptions that might be raised during usage:

1. Missing API Key: If no API key is provided when initializing the TavilyClient, a tavily.MissingAPIKeyError will be raised. Ensure you pass a valid API key to the TavilyClient during instantiation.

   from tavily import TavilyClient, MissingAPIKeyError
   
   try:
       tavily_client = TavilyClient(api_key="")
   except MissingAPIKeyError:
       print("API key is missing. Please provide a valid API key.")

2. Invalid API Key: If the API key provided is invalid, a tavily.InvalidAPIKeyError will be raised when sending a search query. Double-check that your API key is correct and active.

   from tavily import TavilyClient, InvalidAPIKeyError
   
   tavily_client = TavilyClient(api_key="invalid-api-key")
   
   try:
       response = tavily_client.search("Who is Leo Messi?")
   except InvalidAPIKeyError:
       print("Invalid API key provided. Please check your API key.")

3. Usage Limit Exceeded: If the API key provided is valid but the request fails due to exceeding the rate limit, surpassing the plan's monthly limit, or hitting the key's pre-set monthly limit, a tavily.UsageLimitExceededError will be raised. Consider upgrading your plan or checking your usage limits.

   from tavily import TavilyClient, UsageLimitExceededError
   
   tavily_client = TavilyClient(api_key="valid-api-key")
   
   try:
       response = tavily_client.search("Who is Leo Messi?")
   except UsageLimitExceededError:
       print("Usage limit exceeded. Please check your plan's usage limits or consider upgrading.")

   These errors ensure that you are aware of the specific issues related to your API key usage, allowing you to take appropriate actions to resolve them.

4. Bad Request Errors: The /extract endpoint may return a tavily.BadRequestError in the following cases:

   • Exceeds URL Limit: If the number of URLs in the request exceeds the maximum allowed limit of 20, a tavily.BadRequestError will be raised.

    from tavily import TavilyClient, BadRequestError
    
    tavily_client = TavilyClient(api_key="valid-api-key")
    
    urls = [
        "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence",
        "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_learning",
        "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_science",
        "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_computing",
        "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change",
        "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_feminism",
        "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blockchain",
        "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biotechnology",
        "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cybersecurity",
        "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomy",
        "https://tavily.com/privacy",
        "https://tavily.com/#pricing",
        "https://tavily.com/#faqs",
        "https://www.britannica.com/technology/artificial-intelligence",
        "https://www.britannica.com/story/incredible-facts-about-bees",
        "https://www.britannica.com/topic/feminism",
        "https://www.britannica.com/science/biotechnology",
        "https://www.britannica.com/science/climate-change",
        "https://www.britannica.com/technology/blockchain",
        "https://www.britannica.com/money/market-timing-risks",
        "https://blog.tavily.com/"
    ]
    try:
        response = tavily_client.extract(urls=urls)
    except BadRequestError as e:
        print(e)

   • Validation Failure: If all URLs provided in the request fail validation, a tavily.BadRequestError will be raised with details on the failed URLs.

    from tavily import TavilyClient, BadRequestError
    
    tavily_client = TavilyClient(api_key="valid-api-key")
    
    try:
      response = tavily_client.extract(urls=["https://invalid-url1", "https://invalid-url2"])
    except BadRequestError as e:
      print(e)

   These errors help you identify specific issues with your URLs, allowing you to take the necessary actions to resolve them.

Tavily API Credit Deduction Overview

• Tavily Search
  • Each basic search (search_depth="basic") will deduct 1 API credit from your account.
  • Each advanced search (search_depth="advanced") will deduct 2 API credits from your account.
• Tavily Extract
  • For every 5 successful URL extractions, 1 API credit will be deducted from your account.

License

This project is licensed under the terms of the MIT license.

Contact

If you are encountering issues while using Tavily, please email us at support@tavily.com. We'll be happy to help you.

If you want to stay updated on the latest Tavily news and releases, head to our Developer Community to learn more!